Introduction
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a severe social and public health issue in the United States and worldwide. IPV constitutes various violent, abusive, or predatory behaviors committed against a partner in a romantic relationship (Caetano et al., 2019). It can impact different populations, regardless of gender, race and ethnicity, socioeconomic status, or education. The lifetime prevalence of IPV in the U.S. ranges from 27.8% to 45.3% for women and 18.5%-39.6% for men (Willie & Kershaw, 2019). The global prevalence of IPV among women of reproductive age is approximately 27%, while the worldwide prevalence of IPV against men is calculated from 3.4% to 20.3% (Kolbe & Büttner, 2020; Sardinha et al., 2022). It was reported that the prevalence of IPV in Oceania is 49% and in Central sub-Saharan Africa is 44% (Sardinha et al., 2022). Although the U.S. does not have the highest IPV rates, men and women are significantly affected and can experience profound problems with their well-being following exposure to IPV.
Nevertheless, numerous punitive measures for abusers and support programs for IPV victims exist. In the case of child abuse, the correct identification of these cases is essential. Furthermore, the Children’s Bureau plays a critical role in addressing and preventing such cases (Administration for Children and Families, 2019). Preventative approaches are being developed as well to reduce IPV rates. For instance, the EDUCATE program, introduced in the U.S. and Canada, taught orthopedics practitioners proper ways of discussing IPV with their patients (Sprague, 2019). Supportive measures include providing victims of various ethnic and economic background shelter, financial help, and education (Babaee et al., 2021; Caetano et al., 2019). The punitive measures include arrest and incarceration of the abuser if the IPV is proven (Sacco, 2018). American police’s actions range from nonintervention and mediation to arrest, depending on the type of IPV, witnessed by a third party (Jennings et al., 2020). The prevalence of IPV is still high in the United States, but federal agencies strive to develop intervention and preventive programs to protect and educate victims.
Defining Intimate Partner Violence
Types of IPV
IPV is a widespread form of abuse that can occur in a romantic relationship regardless of the marital status of the involved partners. According to Peterson et al. (2018), IPV can be divided into four primary types: contact and non-contact sexual violence, physical abuse, stalking, and psychological aggression. Furthermore, economic violence can occur in romantic partnerships irrespective of marital status. Notably, sufferers can be subjected to more than one form of IPV.
Sexual violence is among the leading forms of IPV experienced by women and men. Examples of contact sexual violence are rape, coercion to engage in sexual contact with penetration, and unwanted sexual intercourse (Peterson et al., 2018). Meanwhile, non-contact sexual violence concerns abuse of sexual nature with no physical contact between the perpetrator and the victim. It includes sexual harassment of the victim, unwanted exposure to situations of sexual nature, as well as unwanted recording and distribution of pornographic materials (Thurston et al., 2021). Physical IPV constitutes slapping, pushing, hitting, kicking, beating, burning, or using a weapon such as a knife or a gun against a romantic partner (Peterson et al., 2018). Such actions are considered abuse if they are deliberate and intended to hurt the victim.
Persons in romantic relationships can experience stalking and psychological abuse by a partner. Staking is a harassing or threatening behavior leading to individuals feeling threatened and fearing for their safety (Peterson et al., 2018). Most commonly, stalking includes such activities as perpetrators watching, following, and contacting their victims without their knowledge or consent (Peterson et al., 2018). Cyberstalking, or using the Internet to control a person and one’s online activity, can be considered a form of IPV. Meanwhile, psychological abuse includes coercive and threatening behaviors, verbal aggression, and exploiting an individual’s vulnerability to control them.
Economic abuse is another form of IPV in which victims are financially mistreated and exploited by a romantic partner. It constitutes individuals being stopped from leading productive financial lives by their partners (Gibbs et al., 2018). Economic IPV includes persons being prevented from working, their earnings being taken, and being forced from their properties or to sell those properties (Gibbs et al., 2018). Such behaviors are intended to isolate and remove autonomy from victims of IPV.
Impact of IPV on Victims
IPV substantially impacts persons experiencing it as well as the community as a whole. Specifically, victims of IPV can suffer financial, physical, and mental health outcomes. Thus, financial difficulties are a common outcome sustained by victims of economic abuse. As this form of IPV is aimed at controlling and exploiting one’s employment and assets, the financial strain put on men and women in abusive relationships is considerable (Lin et al., 2022). Economic abuse and control directly impact financial well-being of IPV victims (Lin et al., 2022). Furthermore, it translates into the victims being limited in their ability to leave the abuser. It is associated primarily with expenses related to leaving an abusive relationship, relocation, healthcare costs, additional childcare costs, and loss of combined income.
Exposure to physical and sexual abuse in a romantic partnership can lead to substantial physical and mental health problems in victims of IPV. Any injuries sustained during an abusive relationship adversely impact the well-being of the IPV victims. Specifically, IPV is positively correlated with a decreased functional health status, development of chronic pain, gastrointestinal problems, gynecological issues, and other chronic conditions (Brown et al., 2020). Research suggests that IPV experience can lead to the accumulation of carotid plaques in arteries and, consequentially, increased risk of cardiovascular disorders (Thurston et al., 2021). Indeed, IPV causes immense pressure and results in chronic stress in victims, which is a significant risk factor for various health issues.
Individuals exposed to IPV who have sustained injuries or developed physical health problems often experience mental health issues. Specifically, IPV translates into victims suffering from suicidal ideation, depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (Gibbs et al., 2018; Peterson et al., 2018; Thurston et al., 2021). Overall, severe mental health issues are common among victims of IPV due to exposure to physical, sexual, and psychological abuse.
Immediate victims of IPV are not the only persons affected, as it impacts the children raised by partners in an abusive relationship and the community. Research suggests that children exposed to IPV have higher rates of depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and sleep problems than their peers (Fogarty et al., 2019). In addition, they can exhibit behavioral issues, decreased cognitive functioning, and difficulties communicating with their peers (Fogarty et al., 2019). Therefore, when schoolchildren experience these problems, it is crucial to investigate if they are exposed to IPV.
Society is affected by IPV as well since it bears its lifetime economic burden. According to Peterson et al. (2018), the community is responsible for the medical services, criminal justice, lost productivity, and other IPV-associated expenses, with lifetime costs of $103,767 per female victim and $23,414 per male victim (p. 438). It is estimated that the government repays over a third of the economic burden associated with IPV. Overall, IPV harms immediate victims, their children, and society, as it is accountable for its costs.
The Scope of the Problem
IPV impacts various communities and populations with different characteristics. According to Chen et al. (2020), in the United States, nearly 20% were sexually assaulted, almost 16% were stalked, and over 37% were sexually and physically abused by their partners. Meanwhile, 1.5% of men were sexually assaulted, approximately 6% were forced to penetrate someone else, 5% experienced stalking, and over 30% were sexually and physically abused by their romantic partners (Chen et al., 2020). Research indicates that bisexual women experience more stalking than heterosexual and lesbian women, whereas bisexual and gay men are exposed to more contact and non-contact sexual abuse than heterosexual men (Chen et al., 2020). In addition, transgender individuals are often exposed to different forms of IPV, including coercive control over gender presentation, threats of being “outed,” as well as the destruction of transition-related items (Peitzmeier et al., 2019). Although men and women of different sexual orientations may face IPV, their experiences are dissimilar.
IPV does not present similarly within different ethnic and racial groups. According to Caetano et al. (2019), IPV is most prevalent among the African-American, white, and multiethnic groups and less common in the Asian and Hispanic communities. Furthermore, the socioeconomic status of the perpetrator and the victim, their access to food, use of illicit substances, alcohol abuse, and adverse childhood experiences are linked to IPV (Caetano et al., 2019). Specifically, alcohol and other mind-altering exogenous substances by an abuser were found to be associated with more severe injuries in IPV victims (Caetano et al., 2019). IPV is a prevalent issue that can affect anyone regardless of their sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, ethnic and racial groups, and socioeconomic background.
Existing Policies on IPV
Violence Against Women Act
The Violence Against Women Act or VAWA is a federal law aimed at addressing and combating IPV. The policy was first signed in 1994 by President Clinton and reauthorized in 2013 by President Obama and in 2018 by President Trump after the law expired in 2011 (Sacco, 2018). The act increased prison sentences to repeat federal sex offenders and authorized restitution for victims of sex offenses (Sacco, 2018). Moreover, it permitted local, tribal, and state law enforcement agencies to investigate and institute legal proceedings in these cases (Sacco, 2018). VAWA provided extended definitions to such terms as domestic violence, sexual assault, dating violence, and stalking to reevaluate them and make them more inclusive of different romantic partnerships, including same-sex couples. Numerous programs aimed at helping persons being physically, sexually, psychologically, and economically abused by their partners were authorized under VAWA (Sacco, 2018). These programs focus on the different needs of IPV victims and offer healthcare, mental health, financial, and housing support and provide training to personnel, including law enforcement officers, working with persons experiencing IPV.
Impact of VAWA
The authorization of VAWA had a substantial impact on how law enforcement agencies respond to IPV cases. Since the act was enacted, law enforcement agencies have shown meaningful changes in law enforcement response to victims and perpetrators and significantly increased pro-arrest policies for IPV offenders. Specifically, since the implementation of VAWA and its various programs, reporting IPV instances has become more accessible due to reduced barriers for victims (Jennings et al., 2020). In fact, VAWA allowed IPV victims to obtain protection orders quicker through an advanced process aimed at guaranteeing their safety.
Under VAWA, the investigation capabilities of different law enforcement agencies were considerably improved. VAWA contributed to the development of domestic violence and sexual assault units within various bureaus (Jennings et al., 2020). The act encouraged the police to collaborate with community-based agencies that work with victims of abuse (Jennings et al., 2020). When reporting IPV, individuals can receive additional information about available services, including healthcare, support groups, counseling, housing, and financial assistance. Furthermore, VAWA mandated specialized training for law enforcement and criminal justice officers on providing sensitive support to survivors of IPV (Jennings et al., 2020). VAWA funding allowed various agencies to employ pro-arrest policies and improve data collection on IPV cases, resulting in a substantial decrease in abuse of women and violence in romantic relationships (Jennings et al., 2020). Therefore, the authorization of the act seemed to positively impact the law enforcement response to victims and offenders.
Approaches to Preventing IPV
IPV prevention is a major part of the VAWA policy and one of its primary goals. Various financial interventions, empowerment, and education campaigns are implemented to reduce IPV prevalence and help men and women escape potentially harmful situations. Such interventions aim to empower at-risk persons and promote their economic independence (Babaee et al., 2021). Research suggests that economic interventions targeted at women are more efficient among women who married as adults than women who married at a young age (Babaee et al., 2021). Overall, ensuring IPV sufferers are financially stable helps to reduce most forms of IPV.
Other interventions focus on educating people on IPV and encouraging them to leave romantic relationships if they are experiencing abuse by their partners. For example, women empowerment interventions aim to improve the problem-solving ability and safety behavior of women experiencing IPV (Babaee et al., 2021). Such programs teach self-efficacy and focus on reducing self-blame thought patterns in victims. According to Babaee et al. (2021), such interventions were found to be effective in preventing physical abuse in romantic partnerships. Indeed, women empowerment programs effectively encouraged IPV victims to raise their voices.
Meanwhile, knowledge campaigns on IPV help people realize what behaviors can precede IPV and encourage them to leave relationships that might become physically or sexually abusive. Education programs for healthcare workers can contribute to IPV being recognized during its earlier stages and help prevent escalation (Sprague, 2019). In addition, information campaigns on how to recognize psychological abuse in relationships can help individuals recognize violent and controlling behaviors and address them. VAWA encourages a variety of campaigns aimed at the prevention of IPV.
The financial support offered to families to improve household economic security can help prevent intimate partner violence, particularly in families with children. According to Caetano et al. (2019), socioeconomic difficulties increase the risk of IPV because female victims may be financially dependent on the abuser. Therefore, financial services provided to families facing economic struggles can prevent different forms of IPV or help the victims to leave their violent partners.
Support Offered to IPV Victims
Under VAWA, victims of IPV are offered support to help them escape their situation and regain their self-efficacy. In 1984 the act authorized funding for battered women’s emergency shelters and transitional housing under the State and Territorial Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence Coalitions Program (Sacco, 2018). Notably, shelter programs are most often aimed at females with children who flee a violent household and cannot afford another accommodation. The act legally requires governmental agencies, including law enforcement agencies, social services, and the postal service, to take measures to safeguard the confidentiality of shelter and transitional housing addresses to protect IPV victims (Sacco, 2018). Thus, victims of IPV, specifically women with children, are provided with shelter residences that allow them to separate from abusive partners.
Social services and VAWA programs offer various support measures for victims of intimate partner violence, including individual and group counseling, legal advice, and court advocacy. For example, the Sexual Assault Services Program focuses on direct intervention and providing various services to IPV victims (Sacco, 2018). The program offers advocacy and accompaniment to abuse sufferers and acquaints them with crisis centers and charitable organizations that can provide them housing, legal assistance, and counseling (Sacco, 2018). Overall, the importance of group support for IPV victims cannot be overstated.
The enactment of VAWA led to the emergence of social services agencies and non-profit entities that support victims in their physical and psychological recovery. Such agencies ensure IPV victims have access to healthcare, promote self-improvement, and teach safety behaviors to prevent further exposure to IPV (Ferranti et al., 2018). They educate individuals on the essence of physical, mental, and reproductive health. Additionally, they discuss how to navigate the American healthcare system and offer empowerment interventions as well as assistance in job search and vocational training. Thus, the authorization of VAWA allowed IPV victims access to many services that provide them with all-encompassing support.
Punitive Measures against IPV Offenders
Persons found guilty of IPV can bear different punitive measures based on the gravity of the committed crime. For instance, corrective financial actions require offenders found guilty of IPV to pay fines, with the amount depending on the national and state laws. Under VAWA, law enforcement agencies implemented several policies to encourage IPV reporting, including mandatory restitution for victims of sexual assault and domestic violence (Jennings et al., 2020). Hence, perpetrators of IPV can be mandated to compensate their victims and the community financially to alleviate the financial burden placed on them.
Depending on the charges against offenders, persons found guilty of intimate partner violence can be sentenced to several years in prison. Depending on the circumstances, IPV perpetrators can be charged either with a misdemeanor or felony domestic violence conviction. According to Sacco (2018), felony sentencing can bear a minimum prison sentence of one year, while misdemeanor judgment can result in a shorter prison term of several months. In addition, probation may be assigned following release from jail or instead of a prison sentence in misdemeanor cases. Notably, the act requires longer sentences for repeat IPV offenders (Sacco, 2018). Overall, IPV is a serious crime that should be punished by incarceration and one that necessitates victim restitution.
Conclusion
Intimate partner violence remains a significant public health issue in the United States. IPV adversely impacts the physical and mental health of victims, putting a substantial financial strain on them as well as a considerable economic burden on society. The VAWA endorsed various programs supporting victims of domestic abuse, from finding transitional housing and assisting in court to addressing barriers to healthcare. However, very few preventative measures are aimed at offenders or likely perpetrators of IPV. Therefore, there is a need for a VAWA program to focus on educating potential and first-time offenders and disrupting patterns that can lead to them abusing their partners.
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