Abstract There comes a time when a marriage cannot be salvaged and the parents have to go through a divorce or a separation. This is because the parents cannot tolerate each other and the situation becomes irreconcilable. Although the parents suffer a lot during this situation, the children are also...
Introduction Bipolar disorder is a disease that causes psychological problems. It causes mood swings in the person who is affected. These are the common symptoms. Sometimes the person is so much depressed that he or she can not function normally, some other times he is so happy or elated that...
Abstract Rational-Emotive behavior therapy is a form of cognitive behavior therapy. This essay aims to explain the theoretical foundations of cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy and outline rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) as a variant of cognitive-behavior psychotherapy. Introduction Human behavior became the focus of psychological research since the late 19th Century. To understand...
Introduction Learning is a process that integrates cognitive, emotional and environmental factors in order to acquire and develop one’s knowledge and skills. On the other hand, learning theory is an attempt to explain the process of learning in human beings. It offers description of the way people acquire knowledge and...
Among dispositional personality theories, it is possible to identify Allport’s Psychology of the Individual Theory and Trait and Factor perspective. Whereas the former approach consists in dividing personality traits into more and less significant in terms of manifestation, the latter considers the job matching personality characteristics. The present paper is...
Freud’s psychosexual theory Freud has been prominent in two connected but different ways. He developed a theory on how human mind is structured and operates internally, and how human behaviour results from the understanding of the human mind. From these two theories he developed a theory of how human sexuality...
Introduction Egoism is considered to be the global aspect in the philosophy and is thoroughly studied by all the thinkers of the world. Egoism is defined as self motivation or goal aimed at the satisfaction of one’s own needs. The theory of egoism has been examined throughout centuries because it...
Introduction Deviant social behavior refers to an action that violates both cultural norms and the rules that are enacted formally. According to the structural-functionalism perspective, deviations emerge from the formation of values and norms which institutions enforce. Deviations result when institutions institute proscriptions or prescriptions. Therefore a deviation is whatever...
Erik Erikson was a student of the famous ‘father of psychology’ Sigmund Freud. He followed many aspects of Freud’s theory of personalities such as the concepts of the id, ego, and superego and the underpinnings of the oedipal complex. However, Erikson was more culturally and socially oriented. He disagreed with...
Introduction Minnesota Multiphasic Personality inventory-2 is a revised second edition psychological assessment instrument scored and interpreted by the examiner and completed by the person who is being examined. It involves examining the personal characteristics of the person taking the test. In this situation, the examiner compares the answers given by...
Erikson developed eight psychosocial stages in which humans develop through throughout their entire life span. Erikson believed that personality progressed through these eight stages with certain conflicts arising at each stage. Success in any stage depended upon successfully overcoming these conflicts. The stages are Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame...
Child development has become an issue of concern and relies mainly on the quality of development given to a child by either the parent, or the society. Parents have to take a great role in monitoring and maintaining standards of children. Psychologically, parent involvement in various children’s development aspects is...
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder that involves cyclic occurrences of fanatical and impulsive behavior. According to the American Psychiatric Association (15), this psychiatric illness is depicted in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) as a disease that is characterized by continuous ideas, visions...
Abstract Researchers implicate impulsivity as having a key role in chemical dependency disorders and self-report measures suggest the measurability of various components of the impulsive behavior. However, there is little research in understanding multidimensional nature using measures of impulsivity in the laboratory that track changes that occur over time. An...
Introduction There is a close relation between impulsivity and substance abuse as impulsivity is referred to as a predisposition towards rapid, unintentional reactions to external or internal stimuli without considering any bad impacts upon themselves or others. The impulsive behavior has been a serious concern for the researchers and the...
Introduction Background In definition, cheating can be said to be an activity that involves lying, deception, trickery, fraud, imposture, and other means which are inverse to the correct. Cheating is defying the law of truth and mostly leads to the breaking of rules. It is a way of getting an...
Introduction Personality and attitudes represent important micro, cognitively oriented variables in the study of organizational behavior (Luthans, 2005). Personality represents the ‘whole person’ concept. It includes perception, learning, motivation, decision-making, and more. Micro theory in organizational behavior deals with the behaviors and nature of individuals and small groups in organizations...
Introduction Numerous attempts contain been made by more than a few companies in arrange to gain a spirited edge over their competitors from side to side organization concepts and practice. Likewise, voluminous subjects contain already been on the document on how companies or organizations shall do well. Yet despite all...
Introduction Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896. In his youth, he studied philosophy and obtained a doctorate in biology by the age of 21. In his work in biology, he discovered that mollusks could adapt to different environments and that their shells matured differently according to their environment....
Middle childhood, from 6 to 12 years of age, is the crucial time when children try to find their path amidst paths set by society, developing their self-image and setting their goals for the future. The ability to forge a positive pathway at this juncture in life can have major...
In the research “Unskilled and Unaware of It: How Difficulties in Recognizing One’s Own Incompetence Leads to Inflated Self-Assessments” self-esteem was explored as a factor for appropriate (typical) and inappropriate (atypical) reaction of the person’s ego in relationship with competence. Moderated multiple tests revealed significant interactions between self-esteem and personality...
Introduction There are various theories that have been advanced by a psychologist on child development, chiefly, the psychoanalytic theories of development, learning theories of development, and the cognitive theories of development (Smith, Cowie and Blades, 2003). The objective of this paper is to take a look at the comparative analysis...
Introduction Autism is the most prevalent developmental disorder affecting one in every 166 children (“How Common?”, 2006). Symptoms of the disorder can be generally described as the incapability to adequately interact socially along with a disinterested demeanor. It is an abnormality in the structure of the brain caused by genetic...
Parent Interview This research paper focuses on parent interviews and infant observation. The parent interview focuses on pregnancy and delivery, infant’s physical developmental milestones, infant’s socio-emotional milestones, cognitive developmental milestones, and the effects of parenthood on parents. Pregnancy and Delivery Briefly Describe the Experience of Pregnancy The infant’s mother explained...
Abstract These are some of the foundational questions that cognitive psychology examines. They are foundational partly because each concerns the nature of basic psychological ability, abilities that we often take for granted, yet which are vital to our normal, healthy functioning and are key to our understanding of what it...
Definition of a test In the field of psychology, a test refers to a highly standardized process that examines the sensual ability and mental processes of an individual (Rogers, 2007). According to experts, a test does not examine every aspect of an individual. It uses certain elements of an individual’s...
One of the major perspectives within behaviorism, social learning theory, states that behaviors are learned through observation and imitation. Even though children and adolescents are particularly exposed to social learning, there are almost no age limitations to the development of new behaviors. Due to the development of communication technologies, the...
Introduction What constitutes one’s self? When one’s personality begins and ends? What are the origins of a person’s identity? These questions have been discussed in the fields of philosophy and psychology for centuries, and yet there is still no consensus on the topic of personal identity. Body theory and memory...
Introduction Generally, psychology can be defined as a branch of science that studies the functioning of the human mind and how it affects human behavior, feelings and thinking. In other words, Multicultural psychology can be defined as the study of human mind relative to human behavior. Psychology is a broad...
Executive Summary This study assumes an age-based perspective in investigating people’s attitudes towards infidelity. It was domiciled in an institutional setting and 50 respondents (aged between 23 and 38 years) took part in it. The goal of the study was to investigate the relationship between personality and infidelity among Millennials....
Abstract This document presents the findings of an experiment investigating change blindness among a group of 250 respondents. The participants viewed 16 everyday scenes and stated whether they detected a change or not. A change was recorded when they clicked on the associated image. Sixteen scenes were presented to the...
Introduction Child sexual abuse can be defined as an action where an adult takes advantage of their dominant position to use a child to attain sexual pleasure, arousal, or satisfaction (Sánchez-Meca, Rosa-Alcázar, & López-Soler, 2011). Such actions may also be considered abuse when there are imbalanced circumstances between the injured...
Family Therapy Field Family therapy is a broad topic for discussion that includes the necessity to investigate and modify the relationships in a family. According to the offered reading, there are three major aspects in family therapy, and they include a system with its properties of wholeness, relationship, and equifinality,...
Personal development plan is a step by step guidance that an individual lay down, based on self awareness, own reflection and assessment, expectations or endings, and strategies that one is willing to apply to affect this plan in order to accomplish his or her life goals. Competencies I am a...
Introduction People tend to use various adjectives to describe how a person behaves in public, with friends, or alone. Words like “kind,” “good,” “cruel,” careless,” “introverted,” and others come to our minds whenever we think of someone. These words represent traits of an individual personality, which are stable characteristics used...
Introduction Posttraumatic stress disorder (PSTD) is a type of anxiety disorder that is characterized by severe emotional wounds after a traumatic experience. Sufferers of PSTD have a recurrence of memories of fear and persistent threat leaving the individual with a feeling of shattered and entirely devastated by events. This condition...
Introduction Have you ever cracked a German soldier’s skull open with a trench shovel? Would you like your children to experience that as well? In some video games, you can do it. Risky and violent entertainment is the locomotive of the gaming industry. Games offer a variety of experiences that...
The issue under investigation Human behavior is a product of various interrelated factors that walk alongside our lives starting with early childhood and is even thought to be closely related to genetics and predicted by it (Hartwell, 2014). The issue under investigation deals with the influence of such variables as...
Introduction Relationships in this age and time are going through a series of problems. One of the major issues that most couples face is the issue of cheating spouses. This reason has several causes, and one of its major causes is women having low self-esteem issues (Stevenson-Hinde, 2007). These women...
Introduction This paper aims to explore an important aspect of my personality—agreeableness. It will also outline the basis of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and apply it to analyzing the manifestations of the trait in real life. Discussion It can be said that I am an excessively agreeable person. People who...
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is an effective tool in the treatment of depression in adults. This therapy considers depression as a consequence of negative thoughts, which primarily reflect violations in the perception and assessment of events. The essence of CBT lies in the thorough study of negative thoughts, the detection...
Participants The participants for this study involved one hundred and forty-five university students, aged between nineteen and twenty-six. The students were randomly selected to listen to music as hypothesized and all the participants agreed to take part in listening to music without any knowledge on the relevance of their participation....
The ecological theory of development as postulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner holds that several environmental systems are involved in the development of an individual. In this regard, five environmental systems are recognized: Microsystem: this setting includes an individual’s family, neighborhood, school, and peers. In a microsystem context, the individual plays an...
Introduction Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a serious health condition that occurs after a petrifying event (Warner et al. 828). Some of the common symptoms associated with PTSD include nightmares, anxieties, and flashbacks associated with the traumatic event (Levin et al. 149). Individuals experiencing various traumatic thoughts or events...
Introduction Psychology is a profession that explains scientific changes that occur in human beings during their development stages. Some people claim that a person’s personality is inherited while others claim that the environment in which a person lives determines his/her personality. As believed by most scientists, psychological and characteristic behaviors...
The first chapter of the book explores the child development field, core developmental issues in children, child development theories, developmental periods, and the aspect of turning theory into practice. Human beings are not static. A continuous phase of psychological and physical transformation is experienced from the point of conception until...
Effects of Unmanaged Stress Stress is a common phenomenon, and it is an element of every individual’s vital functions despite his/her gender, age, or social, and cultural backgrounds. Traditionally, psychologists divide stress into positive and negative types. While a small amount of negative stress may provoke the development of protective...
Positive psychology is “the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions” (Linley, Joseph, Harrington & Wood, 2006). It focuses on positive individual traits such as the capacity for love, courage, interpersonal skills, perseverance, forgiveness, originality, spirituality, and wisdom...
Adolescence is one of the main developmental stages that is widely defined as the period between 13 and 18 years. This life stage is a transition from childhood into adulthood, which is why many psychologists consider it to be one of the critical periods in people’s life. This transitional stage...
Introduction Personality tests have been used for different reasons in the workplace set-up. One of the most common uses of the tests is in the recruitment process. Human resource departments have used the tests to pick out the best candidates for the job. Ideally, personality tests are done at the...
Introduction This research paper lays emphasis on parent interviews and play years of observation. The parent interview seeks to establish the progress of the baby in terms of physical, socio-emotional, and cognitive development. The information gathered from the parent interview shall indicate whether the child’s development pattern is age-appropriate. On...
Introduction Humanity has been known to possess psychic abilities since the dawn of time. It has many names – clairvoyance, premonition, remote viewing, the sixth sense… However, only after the real science has been applied, we have been able to strip the phenomenon of all the unnecessary vibe of mysticism...
Problem-solving is considered one of the essential human cognitive processes since it is a higher-layer process. Problem-solving is closely related to other cognitive processes. These processes are pensiveness, searching, erudition, decision-making, inference, psychoanalysis, and synthesis. Problem-solving is related to other cognitive processes through the object-attribute model. Studies show that problem...
Early childhood is a vital period in the development of every human being. Many researchers in psychology devote their studies to the exploration of the characteristic features of a child’s psychological state and emotional well-being during this period. According to Zen’kovskii (2013), “the general sense and the general features of...
Book Report Education of a child is crucial due to the fact that it is a powerful tool of socialization with the help of which the society receives a member that can be multifunctional in a variety of settings. Despite the common belief that the role of school and other...
Operant conditioning is a term used to refer to behaviour modification that is attained through a response-reward system. The major assumption (which happens to be true) is that human beings behaviour can be conditioned through a reward system. The reward may be positive, which reinforces a positive behaviour, may be...
Introduction Sigmund Freud is widely known as the founder and the proponent of the psychoanalysis theory, which deals with individuals’ personalities. He was born on the sixth of May 1856 in Moravia and later served as an Austrian neurologist in the 19th and the 20th centuries (Friedman & Schustack, 2011)....
Cognition The term cognition in science refers to mental processes. There are a number of mental processes, which are referred in cognition. They include attention, memory, learning, producing, understanding a language, decision making, reasoning and problem solving among others. In general, the term cognition involves thinking. It is about how...
Introduction Self-harm can be conceptualized as the act of direct destruction or alteration of body tissue by an individual (Gratz, 2006). It is important to note that there is a difference between self-harm and suicide. This is given the fact that the individual inflicting destruction and alteration to their body...
Introduction The process of human development involves several stages. Moreover, it starts with the period of conception until birth. Lifespan development is characterized by numerous transformations. Development process begins at conception and culminates at birth. Fetus materializes from a single cell organism then it forms a full term infant. At...
Introduction The following is a report on a four-member team that was assigned the task of getting to the peak of Mount Everest safely while trying to get the least trouble possible. The structure of this report is founded on Christopher Johns’ four-step model of guided reflection. Our team was...
Introduction In the recent past there have been talk shows on different radio stations discussing bullying in schools and the work place. For instance, on the 18th of February this year, there was a lengthy discussion on bullying on ABC radio. The discussion was in response to a recent survey...
Group counseling is one of the therapy approaches that coexist with individual therapy empowering treatment of various psychological problems. Group counseling has particular benefits for treating problems related to intrapersonal and interpersonal issues as well as for helping people change. For example, it can be useful for such conditions as...
Introduction Differentiation is an approach that influences the different learning and development needs of academically diverse students. Many students in schools are different in terms of social and economic status, literacy, language proficiency, race, ethnic and cultural background, quality of family support, prior knowledge, motivation, level of opportunity, learning preferences,...
Introduction On many platforms, the application of tools of the mind in teaching has received praise for having a positive impact on academic achievement. Despite the results, only limited research has been conducted to evaluate the effect of tools of the mind on the academic performance of students and on...
Introduction This paper provides a reflective narration on a project that was carried out by our small team on its escapade to the peak of Mount Everest. Our self-managed team comprised of four members who actively participated in the project. In writing the report, I will employ Christopher Johns’ four-step...
Introduction According to various researchers, it is imperative that children’s behaviors remain closely monitored so as to identify any development disorders. With this procedure in place, early cases of development disorders such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) can be addressed using early intervention and inclusion strategies (WebMD, 2005). As...
Abstract The research that will be done will focus on children and autism. It seeks to study how autism affects children’s development and how children affected by this syndrome can be assisted to learn. To successfully do this, it will deal with questions like; how is autism related to the...
Physical Check the following symptoms that apply: ☒Headaches ☐Accident prone ☐Fatigue ☐Teeth grinding ☐Insomnia ☒Restlessness ☐Weight change ☐Neck/shoulders tight ☐Colds ☒Pounding heart ☐Digestive upsets ☐Increase in alcohol, drug, or tobacco use ☒Others: She trembles and her mouth become dry. Stress Level (1=low, 5=high) 5 Physical Assessment Amy portrays some physical...
Introduction Any individual in the modern world must have originated from some source irrespective of his/her beliefs about mythical, evolution and creation theories. Therefore, the term growth and development is majorly associated with living things. The paper, however, will consider, in isolation, the complex physical and motor, social and emotional...
Although abnormal psychology as a scientific field has existed for about 100 years, explanations on abnormal behavior date back to pre-biblical history (Damour & Hansell. 2008). Abnormal psychology relates to the understanding of the nature, the causes as well as the treatments on disorders associated with the mind. Indeed, problems...
Introduction Family therapy is a form of psychotherapy employed to assist members of a family in improving communication systems, conflict resolution and to help the family deal with certain problems that manifest in the behavior of members. In most cases, deviance in a family member is an indication of underlying...
Introduction Erickson came up with a theory that modified the views of Freud to suit social definition. In theory, each developmental stage has a specific name, which is referred to as a task. Each developmental stage of human personality centers on emotional polarity, which he referred to as conflict. This...
Introduction Psychologists have elucidated how moral and personality development occur throughout one’s lifespan. Lawrence Kohlberg and Erik Erickson are such psychologists who have contributed to the development of psychological theories that explicate moral and personality development respectively. In moral development theory, Lawrence Kohlberg asserts that, moral development occurs sequentially across...
An individual’s behavior is affected in several ways by various factors. The four common factors influencing individual behavior are motivation, ability, role perception, and situational factors. Motivation refers to forces within an individual, which affects his or her direction, persistence, and intensity of his or her voluntary behavior. In this...
Introduction Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) comprises many functional impairments that influence behavior, neurological processes, and the psychological sphere of a person. It belongs to the group of trauma- and stressor-related disorders. This disorder can be conditioned by diverse factors or events including “wars, environmental disasters, rape, accidents, physical traumas, and...
Intervention Approach by Emphasizing the Benefits of Interactions To bridge the deficiency in the number and quality of interactions between the caregivers and children from the lowest income group (Risley & Hart, 1995), the first strategy I would use is to accept that these social differences exist. The type of...
What are the core assumptions of the biopsychological approach? Biopsychology or biological psychology is a branch of psychology that considers the influence of the central nervous system and the neurotransmitters on behaviors, thoughts, and feelings of individuals. Biopsychology then assumes that every behavior, thought, or feeling expressed by an individual...
Erik Erikson’s theory presents powerful ideas and concepts that can support the changing needs of many people. The article “Identity Development throughout the Lifetime: An Examination of Eriksonian Theory” by Justin Sokol offers a detailed analysis of Erikson’s theory of development. According to the class materials, identity development is something...
Introduction Child development is very important since it’s a proven fact that what the children go through while young will have a very big impact on the way they act in their adult life. Jean Piaget developed the most cited explanation of the cognitive theory, in his description; Piaget suggests...
Executive Summary Behavioral science theory is quite effective in helping us to understand the effectiveness of leadership. This theory stipulates that a leader that posses some character traits and is in a position of displaying consideration is capable of structuring follower’s behavior; therefore, such a leader is considerably effective. This...
Introduction Time management is one of the most important elements that one should focus on his or her quest to achieve personal and career development goals. Various factors highlight the need to manage time effectively. According to De Janasz et al. (2006), individuals face varying demand for time in order...
My Stereotyping Experience One of the things that make human life intriguing and to some extent captivating is the diversity and variation exhibited by people as a result of their differing cultures, jobs, personalities, and physical appearance. However, there exists great misinformation and at times, we tend to overgeneralize and...
Introduction In 1943, Leo Kanner described a developmental disorder in his article that sampled a case of eleven children (Corsello 2005; Levy, Ae-Hwa & Melissa, 2006). Since then, this research has inspired many scholars to examine the condition to curb its ever-increasing prevalence among young children. The evidence of this...
Abstract The prevalence of mental illnesses among children in the United States has been increasing over the decades (Song, Mailick, & Greenberg, 2014). A fifth of the adolescents in the United States are affected by these conditions. Notably, the most common illnesses reported include anxiety and substance use disorders. While...
Introduction Learning is an uninterrupted process that is influenced by changing behavior throughout the life of an individual. In 1938, BF Skinner suggested that the primary changers of behavior included the environment, reinforcement, and punishment. This essay provides an overview of various theories that lead to a change in behavior...
Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories are considered valuable contributions to developmental research. Piaget’s approach is grounded in the context of the learning experience, particularly, the assimilation and accommodation principles (Crain, 2014). Assimilation presupposes taking new experience into thought without forming a new concept, and accommodation involves creating a new idea. Meanwhile,...
Introduction Since the 1999 merciless shooting of students in Colorado High School by their fellow students, a lot of questions have arisen on the effect of violent video games on people’s overall behavior. This is because, as per investigations, the two used to play numerous violent games such as Wolfenstein...
Ethical issues associated with psychological testing A major ethical issue which is associated with psychological testing is the use of informed consent. To obtain a voluntary consent to an assessment is a very crucial component of psychological testing. The client is entitled to get information concerning the purpose of testing,...
Introduction Psychology encompasses the study of human mental processes, behaviors, and emotions. It can substantially contribute to understanding of human relationships and actions. The study of human behaviors, experiences, and mental processes occur in diverse socio-cultural contexts making psychology a diverse field of study. Its theories and principles are applicable...
Man has been faced with both physical and psychological challenges that have necessitated the provision of appropriate care. Various therapeutic measures, therefore, have been developed to address these medical challenges. Psychotherapeutic intervention is one of the most developed and has helped in taking care of mental or emotional problems. It...
Abstract Modalities are agents of factors that have an impact on a patient. These modalities are employed by therapists in directing the perspectives of their clients or patients. The choice of therapy is dictated by the type of client and the particular issues affecting the client. A single modality approach...
Introduction Autism refers to a psychiatric disorder characterized by an individual having abnormal absorption with their inner self and lacking interest in relating with others. The syndrome is common among children and it is often marked by communication disorders, short attention spans, as well as the inability to treat others...
Introduction A theory is a belief, policy, or principle that guide and form the basis of an action. Learning is the acquisition and retention of experiences that lead to permanent change or modification of behavior due to interaction with the environment. Learning occurs as a result of some changes that...
Abstract The essay examines the impact of divorce on children because they are the major victims of divorce. Preschool children, school-age children, and adolescents are the most affected by divorce because they are highly dependent on their parents for care, protection, and support. Divorce is a painful experience, and therefore,...
Counterproductive work behavior Every company has goals and behavioral practices that are unique to it. Employees are therefore required to live up to the expectations and character requirements of the organization. Counterproductive work behavior, also known as CWB, refers to behaviors that contravene an organization’s policies. Employees can exhibit behaviors...
The value of child development theories as they relate to child development in children ages 4 to 5 Psychosocial development theory is necessary for child development during the age of 4 to 5 years because it describes how children acquire a certain personality based on the resolution of psychosocial crises....
Conformity and obedience Conformity and obedience are described as social behaviors that people engage in while undertaking their daily activities. The behavior of people is influenced by the society that they live in. However, obedience and conformity have been subjected to scrutiny by psychologists in order to help them analyze...
Introduction The ‘Lot in Life’ chosen for this case is a 6-year-old who has just been diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). There is no known cure for this condition. This section covers key issues related to the scenario. Overview ADHD is a brain disorder characterized by a continuing...
Introduction People may wonder what shape their attitudes or why some individuals emerge as great leaders. On the same note, others may think about prejudice and ways of overcoming it. While these are just few issues, which may drive people to social psychology, there are other fundamental areas, which may...
Introduction Jean Piaget made a significant contribution to education through his theory of cognitive developmental stage. The learner was a critical part of the theory. Piaget noted that cognitive development took place in different stages, but the interaction between biological factors and the environment played a major role in learning...
Middle childhood and adolescence period comes with a number of changes to teens. This is a transition stage that involves exploration and freedom among teens. It is also a period when teens have to deal with issues of self-consciousness and a search for self-identity. Peer pressure is a significant factor...
