Introduction
The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest royal domains established by the Turks in South-Eastern Europe. The Ottoman Empire lasted for nearly five centuries within which time it gained immense power and popularity. Under the administration of the sultan, the empire managed to conquer many territories. However, the Ottoman Empire was faced with a number of challenges that resulted in its decline as a powerful empire. In the nineteenth century, the Empire’s leaders realized the need to institute reforms in their administration. This was aimed at ensuring that the Ottoman Empire regained its former glory as a powerful force to reckon with. The reform process identified the importance of embracing western ideologies in order to achieve stability and development in the Empire. In the last century of its existence, the Ottoman Empire adopted a more liberal approach towards the issues of governance, as opposed to its previous dictatorial form of governance. This was a clear testimony that the reform process was gaining success. In light of the foregoing arguments, there is need to explore the westernization process of the Ottoman Empire to the present day Turkish State. In addition, it is also important to attempt to analyze the linkage of this process to Turkey’s road to the European Union.
Decline of the Ottoman Empire
During the 18th century, there were three main challenges which faced the Ottoman Empire. The empires reaction in dealing with these challenges had a significant impact on the empire. One of the effects is that it paved way for beginning of the Tanzimat period. The first challenge faced was threats from Russian Empire, which had emerged as a great power when the Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline (Alderson, 1996, p.34). Most of the Ottomans territories faced numerous threats from the Russian army. Some of these regions include Istanbul which was at the time, the capital city of Ottoman Empire.
The second challenge that the Ottoman Empire was faced with entailed an increment in the number of nationalist movements within the empire. In this case, it is important to note that the nationalist movements preceded the French revolution. Since the start of the 19th century, the empire witnessed an increment in the number of nationalist movements uprising. This trend was maintained till the end of World War I. These movements were formed by various ethnic groups that sought to break up the empire and in the process, obtain their independence (Heper, 2002, p.21). European Great Powers supported these uprisings with the aim of extending their influence within the Ottoman state. Examples of such movements included the Greek, Serbia, Bulgarian and Anatolia revolutions.
The third challenge was the penetration of major European powers into the Empire, who interfered with in the internal affairs of the Ottoman state. To a large extent, the acquisition of legal rights of interference by the European powers, through the Paris (1856) and Berlin (1878) treaties reform provisions, facilitated this penetration. In addition, it is also important to note that certain European powers gained access to the Ottoman Empire through asserting religious protectorates over particular Ottoman Christians groups (Alderson, 1996). Furthermore, increase in trade relations between European countries and the Ottoman Empire ensured that now, Europeans gained access to the local market. As a result, they now had access to an increasingly higher number of clients especially in trading centers and ports. This commercial influence was followed by a cultural influence that was perpetuated by the missionaries. Finally, political influence came into play as well. In this case, it is important to note that this political influence came about through consuls that had been established in most provincial centers within the Ottoman Empire.
Westernization process of late Ottoman Empire
Various responses were generated by the Ottoman statesmen with regard to the challenges facing them. One of the most popular responses that the Ottoman statesmen deemed appropriate to adopt was an implementation reforms exercise with a view to helping the empire embrace westernization centralized power. In this case, more revenue and better military skills were required to support the empire. These were attained by way of institutionalizing a centralized finance and administration division within the empire. In order to ensure that this strategy was effective, desertion of decentralization was necessary. This marked the beginning of an administrative centralization process coupled with military modernization. Military modernization consequently paved way for bureaucratic, administrative, and legal modernization. The state went through a period of westernization in political, social, cultural and economic aspects, all through the nineteenth century.
During the Tanzimat period, various reforms were executed in three phases. The first phase was implemented during Sultan Mahmud II reign (1808–1839). The second phase was carried out under his sons, Abdülmecid (1839–1861) and Abdülaziz (1861–1876), and the final phase under Sultan Abdülhamid II (1876–1909). These Tanzimat reforms assured overall reorganization in each state and societal institution. This involved, attaining a more orderly tax collection, a fair system of military conscription, as well as reorganization in the education and justice systems (Shaw, 2005, p.76). Minimal emphasis was given to Islamic tradition while civil equality in relation to non-Muslims was highly appreciated. Consideration of incorporating the empire into the political and economic system of the western countries was considered as one of the ways of maintaining the Empire’s success. However, decision to establish a relationship with Europe as one of the ways of improving its economy was reached rather than resisting it.
Increased centralization was witnessed as opposed to the traditional decentralized Ottoman system, with central government extending its influence to the people. The traditional Ottoman government system was replaced with a complex system of government that was divided into executive, legislative and judicial arms (Berkes, 2000, p.34). The executive arm of the administration was composed of a number of ministries which were lead by ministers. Their role was to act as the grand vizier. The legislative function was allocated to a democratically elected parliament that was first introduced in 1877 and later in the Young Turk constitutional period of 1908 to 1918. Administration was taken up by a new hierarchy of well-educated bureaucrats, who dominated the Ottoman government to the end of the empire. The reforms undertaken during the 19th and 20th century transformed the empire by improveing its governance.
One of the major weaknesses that characterized these reforms was that they appeared to focus more on institutional and physical reforms only. In addition, the centralized bureaucracy tended to exercise extreme control over people’s lives compared to the traditional decentralized Ottoman system. During this time, both the Young Ottomans and the Young Turks helped to establish liberal political movements. The aim of establishing these liberal political movements was with a view to ensuring that socio-political reforms were achieved. This was also during the reign of Tanzimat and Abdülhamid 11, and this historical period was characterized by numerous social and economic reforms. In addition, there was an increment in development of modern communication mechanisms such as use of steam navigation and telegraphs. Some of the most fundamental issues which were of concern to Ottoman elites in the survival of the empire entailed maintenance of territorial integrity and independence. In addition, these elements were vita in sustaining imperialism and nationalism.
During the entire reign of the empire in the 19th century, some of the key discussions conducted by the military and political elites entailed the various ways through which nationalism and separatism could be prevented among non-Muslims who composed 40% of the entire population. As a measure against nationalism, Ottoman statesmen formulated the Ottomanism policy (Berkes, 2000, p.23). The policy was meant to uphold the concept of one Ottoman nation, comprising of individuals with equal rights according to law, sharing a common native country, and faithful to the state as well as the sultan. Ottomanism went through several phases, with the first one involving acknowledgement of equal basic rights to all citizens by the state, as stated in the 1839 Imperial Rescript of Gulhane. The second phase entailed creation of socio-economic development and joint education system by the state, especially in the Christian provinces of the Balkans, after the 1856 Imperial Rescript of Reform. In the third phase, the state offered its citizens political rights in a final attempt to curb nationalism. This resultantly turned the empire into a constitutional monarchy, with a parliament and a constitution in 1876.
Diplomacy was considered vital in assuring survival of the Ottoman Empire since it was not in a position to handle external threats due its military weakness. During the Tanzimat period, Britain came out as the key supporter of the Empire against Russia. Despite the fact that the European Great Powers was relatively strong compared to the Ottoman Empire, the empire was a vital international actor. This arises from the fact that its decisions could affect other powerful states. After some time, Ottoman Empire was integrated within the European State System. This was attained via signing of a treaty between the two. As a result, its status in terms of power was acknowledged. The Tanzimat regime experienced a period of crisis after 1875 that was characterized by, state bankruptcy, Christian rebellions in the Balkan, a coup d’état, a major diplomatic disagreement with the European Great Powers, and a devastating war with Russia (Shaw, 2005, p.32).Though Abdülhamid did not discard the Tanzimat reforms, he intensely criticized certain features of previous policies which he believed, had triggered the crisis. Such characteristics included;
- Financial recklessness
- Tolerance of the existing European influence
- Failure to control nationalist
- Separatist tendencies
- Failure to protect the welfare of the Muslims’
Sultan Abdülhamid made major changes in political administration of the Empire. Such changes resulted from adoption of authoritarian leadership. In addition, his leadership was aimed at controlling all the policies implemented in the empire. Some of the features associated with Tanzimat reforms which he considered important were retained. In addition, construction of a number of projects aimed at improving the infrastructure was undertaken (Shaw, 2005, p.54). These included construction of;
- Harbors
- Railways
- Schools
- Telegraph lines
- Security and military systems
Sultan Abdülhamid avoided forming alliances with the Great Powers and instead, opted to maintain a diplomatic stand of neutrality. The Sultan also distanced the empire from Great Britain which was its former protector, and harmonized relations with Russia. This marked the beginning of one of the longest periods of peace in the Russo-Ottoman relationship that lasted for more than a century. In addition, the Sultan also established a strong relationship with German. This decision was aimed at helping the regime of Sultan Abdulhamid cope with Britain and Russian forces. The Young Turks spearheaded the Abdülhamid’s regime’s opposition. The group was composed of;
- Students,
- Civilians,
- Military officers
- Intellectuals
These individual formed an organization which was referred to as the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). Most of its members were young officers who served in various Macedonia provinces. They demanded restoration of the parliament as a way of controlling dictatorship and preserving the empire’s integrity. By staging a mass movement in July 1908 in Macedonia, CUP was able to compel the sultan to restore the parliament. This decision was undertaken in order to minimize chances of internal chaos occurring. A counter-revolution began in Istanbul in April 1909 against the policies of the CUP.
However, CUP was able to crush the rebellion. In addition, it overthrew Abdülhamid in1909 by accusing him to have instigated the rebellion. A high level of democracy within the Ottoman Empire was experienced during the period ranging from 1908 to 1918. The most democratic era of Ottoman Empire was experienced during the second constitutional period of 1908 to 1918. However, a considerable amount of instability was experienced after invasions into a number of its provinces. The invasion of its Lybian provinces by Italy made Ottomands to lose control of most of its South East Europe provinces. In addition, its control of Istanbul was endangered. Increase in the number of refugees who sought residence in Istanbul and other parts of the empire resulted into an increment in the number of challenges facing the empire. As a result, CUP experienced an internal conflict disorder which was made worse by the 1913 coup.
A Triumvirate was established in an effort to defend Instanbul. It took advantage of the internal challenges experienced within CUP and Balkan states. This was aimed at establishing social and economic legislation. It was CUP intention to formulate and implement protective foreign policy in addition to establishing a good relationship with the Entente Powers which were composed of France, Britain and Russia. In order to keep the territorial integrity of the Empire, the CUP was certain that only an alliance with the Entente could guarantee the survival of the remains of the Empire after the previous wars. CUP sought reinforcement from two main cities which included Paris and London. However, this was not possible during this time. When the I World War began, the government had not attained its objectives (Shaw, 2005, p.25).The CUP leaders were sure that neutrality would be catastrophic for the Ottoman Empire since it would leave it isolated and at the sympathy of the aggressive states. During the First World War, the Ottoman Empire lost more territories, with the Russians penetrating into eastern Anatolia and the British capturing Baghdad, Palestine and Syria. Throughout the war, various partners entered into agreements which were aimed at partitioning the Empire. By 1917, most of the Ottoman Empire territories were taken by other regimes. However, the Ottoman army regained the Eastern Antolia territory after it was abandoned by the Russian army as a result of the revolt.
The Treaty of Sevres of August 1920 had extremely severe implications on the Ottoman Empire. It took all the Arab provinces away from the Empire and also deprived the Ottomans command over the Straits. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s, the Turkish nationalists staged a resistance movement to protest against invasions conducted on the territory. As a result, they defeated the forces which were in Southern and Western Anatolia. Some of the forces belonged to France, Greece and Italy. The resultant effect was the emergence of the Turkish Republic which was based in Anatolia (Berkes, 2000, p.65). During the War for Independence of 1919 to 1922 in Turkey, two rival governments come into sight.
Linkage to European Union
Turkey gradually came to have a European vocation at the begining of the last decades of the eighteenth century.Since the formation of the Ottman state, there was a close interaction between the Turks and Europeans. In the early centuries, a great of deal mutual relations were wittnessed between the Byzantines and Turks (Heper, 2002). During the later centuries, the Christians, Jews, and Muslims similarly influenced each other. During those later centuries, the Turks interacted with Europeans through war or trade relations. Many Europeans merchants and scholars visited the Ottoman lands and some converted to Islam. The converts played an important role in establishing communications and maintaining links between the Turks and Europeans.
As the Ottoman Empire expanded the Turks got more involved in European politics. One example was when Francis I, the king of France requested for Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificient’s help against the Hapsburgs. During the late Ottoman Empire, the empire began to decline but Turkey did not become a colony.However, they never resented the Europeans and instead tried to get close to their European adverseries (Renda, 2006, p.76). They even sent an ambassador to Paris in the early seventeenth century, so as to enquire aspects of European civilization that could be adopted by the Turks. The Ottoman state was Islam dominated but in its last phase, secular state philosophy was developed that battled with Islamic prescriptions. During the nineteenth century, other Muslim countries made efforts to reconcile Islam with modernization, and this was not an exception for the Turks (Heper, 2002). Having developed into an empire consisting of several religions, the Ottoman state could not impose Islam upon the people it ruled. The founders of the state adopted Abdullah Cevdet saying that, there was no second civilization and that civilization meant European civilization.
From the history of the Ottoman Empire and its westernization process, it is clear that the Empire faced major problems and challenges relating to governance that led to decline of the empire and finally its dissolution. The main reason given for the instability of the Empire is poor leadership that was based on biased Islamic principles, which led to constant detesting and uprisings from the Christian and secular groups. However, the Empire embraced change and accepted reforms which were implemented by its leaders. At this point westernization was evident in the Empire and this reflected their urge to become like the Europeans and their further quest to join the European Union. The historical events reviewed above help identify the reasons why Turkey has not yet been integrated into the European Union (Brown, 1996). Firstly, the county has been experiencing wars in the recent years which have resulted in destabilization of the economy. This can be traced back and related to countless wars fought within the Ottoman Empire. Secondly, Turkey is historically known for its strong Islamic values and doctrines. This has therefore raised fears of integration of Muslim culture into contemporary European society.
Conclusion
The historical events of the Ottoman Empire played a big role in shaping what Turkey is today. The empire was faced by various challenges of defending its territory and its Islamic views. However the need to solve these challenges led to the process of westernization during the nineteenth century, which saw the establishment of Turkey as a republic. Over the years Turkey has always made efforts to join the European Union but, has been unsuccessful. Its Islamic cultural background raises fear among EU stakeholders and also, constant wars experienced in Turkey have led to economic instability. Therefore there is need to establish how true such fears could be. Also, Turkey’s strive to westernization from the Ottoman Empire period proves that it has the potential to grow into a great economy that could be beneficial to the entire European Union.
Reference List
Alderson, D., 1996, The Structure of the Ottoman Dynasty. New York: Edward Wesley.
Berkes, N. & Brown, K., 2000, The Development of Secularism in Turkey. New York: Rita Myers.
Brown, L., 1996, Imperial Legacy: The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East. New York: Johnson, White.
Heper, M., 2002. The convergence of civilization. Case study of Turkey: Bilkent University, Ankara Website. Web.
Renda, G., 2006. Cultural encounters. The Ottoman Empire and Europe, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 13-21.
Shaw, S. J., 2005. The rise of modern Turkey.The History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 123-150.