Introduction
To understand the cuisine, culture, and traditions of wine, one has to look at the very beginning and observe the appearance, evolution, and factors that influenced the culture of wine in different countries and around the world. The status of wine in society was never static. It always changed depending on the quality, availability, and distribution of wine. Traditions of consuming wine in different social stratum also differed from one another. Cheap and low-quality wine available to the average peasant was consumed differently from expensive, and high-quality wines served to kings and nobles in the royal court. This section will explore the evolution of wine culture and its attachment to the local cuisine, during different periods – ancient, medieval, and contemporary times. Greece, Italy, France, and Germany will be used to demonstrate the European line of wine culture, whereas the region of Mesopotamia will represent the Middle Eastern line, and China will serve as a representative for the Far East.
Wine Culture in Ancient Greece
Greeks have an ancient history of wine. The earliest archeological finds indicate that in Greece, wine existed since the late Neolithic Period and well into the Bronze Age (McGovern 24). Due to the geography of the land and the abundance of hills, mountainsides, and elevations, Greece was naturally and climatically predisposed towards growing vines. The widespread use of wine, which gave a boost to the development of Greek culture of winemaking and consumption is associated with the Mycenaean period when wine as a commodity grew in importance in domestic, medicinal, and religious aspects of Greek society, as it was used in medicine as an antiseptic and an instrument of contacting the Gods (McGovern 35).
Greek wine culture featured two contradictory traits to itself. Wine became very widespread in Ancient Greece, and every farmer and peasant was known to have a few vines to harvest grapes from. The wine was often considered a substitute for water, due to water being often unsafe for consumption. Thus, Greek wine culture involved the daily consumption of wine by men, women, and children of all social strata. At the same time, such widespread consumption did not involve the promotion of drunkenness. The ancient Greek culture of wine consumption promoted moderation. This could be perceived not only through the remarks of Aristotle and Eubulus but also in the perception of Dionysius – the God of Wine in the Greek pantheon (McGovern 43). He was also associated with civilization and culture, which is attested by a claim that “the peoples of the Mediterranean began to emerge from barbarism when they learned to cultivate the olive and the vine” (McGovern 55). In regards to cuisine, wine was present during all three meals of the day, in one way or another. It was either consumed as a drink, or as a sauce for dipping bread into. At Greek symposiums, wine was consumed in abundance, with nuts, beans, honey cakes, and other foods as a supplement to extend the drinking ceremony and prevent the guests from getting drunk too soon (Dalby 68).
Wine Culture in Ancient Rome
Wine culture in Rome was largely formed under the influences of Greece and Carthage, with the former having a large influence over all of the Mediterranean sea, and the latter being Rome’s sworn enemies. It was not always this way, however. The Early roman culture was notoriously restrictive on alcohol in general, not just wine. It was considered to be an expensive drink, dangerous to those drinking it in large quantities (McGovern 60). This view reflected on its consumption – it was consumed only on special occasions and in relatively small quantities. To understand the origins of such beliefs and views towards wine, it is necessary to consider the history of early Rome as a city-state. Early Rome possessed very little territory and was engaged in constant fighting for survival against the Etruscans, the Gauls, and other enemies. Such a martial existence prohibited the frivolities associated with wine, and lack of territory to produce it in large quantities explained its relative disparity (McTavish 112).
As Rome expanded and took over other territories, it was also introduced to wine culture. In many ways, Rome would mirror the Greek approach towards wine, even more so after Greece was conquered by the Roman Empire (Rod 100). This introduced new habits related to wine consumption and various foods and spices enriching Roman cuisine. At the same time, the disparity between different social classes in Rome grows, which lead to the appearance of low and high wine culture. High culture was customary to the rich and powerful roman households, while low wine culture was customary to the lowest social stratum. The cuisine differed greatly between the two – while rich and noble Romans were capable of affording expensive snacks like chestnuts, ember, cheeses, and fresh meat cooked with spices. Not only did these foods taste good with wine, but they also helped reduce the effects of alcohol poisoning, which allowed to prolong the celebration. The poor often had to make do with simpler meals, such as bread, peas, and beans, which fulfilled the same purpose. (Dougherty 192).
Wine Culture in Ancient France and Germany
The landscape of France and Germany today is not the same as it used to be 2000-3000 years ago (Rod 33). The territory of these countries was covered with thick forests, which made the creation of orchards difficult. Still, there is evidence of the Germanic tribes making wine out of wild grapes, although this practice was not very widespread (Rod 49). Wine, along with wine culture, was brought to these countries from Rome. The Empire did not only conquer, but it also brought trade and technology. Still, the wine remained largely outside of the reach of common folk, who had to make do with ale and beer, and other fermented drinks, while wine was reserved for the rich and noble families that could afford it. In territories under Roman control, the culture of drinking wine mimicked that of the capital, although the local cuisine had its imprint on what was served at the table with the wine. Chestnut and ember were less common in this province of the Roman Empire due to the additional expenses. Instead, they were replaced by meats and bread, which were aplenty and served as good addition to wine at the table. Roman influence was stronger in France than in Germany, as parts of Germany remained unconquered. In these parts, wine was consumed with local cuisine, which included bread, oatmeal, venison, and various vegetables. Records show that boiled wine with herbs was a popular drink during celebrations of Winter Solstice, meaning that to ancient German culture the drink had a certain religious aspect as well (Dougherty 176).
Wine Culture in Ancient China
China invented wine on its own, and the earliest recorded archeological findings of wine in China date back to 7000 BC, which is roughly 9000 years ago (McGovern 202). The wine was a very popular drink in Ancient China, though not quite as popular as the stronger version called Huangjiu, and the distilled spirit called Baijiu. Traditionally, it was consumed during family dinners, and on major celebrations. Chinese cuisine at that time revolved greatly around rice, cucumbers, and soybeans, which were considered main vegetables, as well as various meats such as pork, chicken. Noodles and wheat became popular in China during the rule of the Han Dynasty, circa 220 BC (Laudan 99). These dishes were often served with wine for the same reasons as in other parts of the world – they filled the stomach, thus reducing the detrimental effects of the wine on one’s organism. In addition to that, wine enhanced their taste. The wine was an important aspect of the Chinese culture, frequently mentioned by historians and philosophers, and having a great impact on religion – archeological evidence shows that the appearance of first religions in China coincides with the discovery of wine. One particular religion that used wine in its spiritual practices was called Wuism, also known as Chinese Shamanism (Hongliang 120). This is not unique to China alone, as wine and alcohol, in general, were often used in religious rituals to “communicate with spirits,” and for other purposes (Garcia-Romeu and Tart 129).
Wine Culture in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is considered the cradle of civilization, as the first cities and states appeared in a narrow patch of land between Tigris and Euphrates. The ancient city-states of Ur, Uruk, Lagash, and Kish were famous for pioneering many aspects of agriculture such as irrigation and brewing (Rod 11). Although the population preferred beer and ale, they also had wine in their diet. According to McGovern, the best wine came from the Zagros Mountains (17). Just like in other countries, the split between the commoners and the nobles was obvious – the nobles were the main consumers of wine, while the commoners preferred ale and beer, which was cheaper. There is not much information about the drinking traditions and cuisine of Mesopotamian cities. However, the writings and pictures demonstrate that wine was a welcome guest at the tables of various important officials, and various religious rituals (Garcia-Romeu and Tart 125).
Wine Culture during Medieval Period
As it was possible to trace from the examples of wine culture in different areas around the world, all cultures had a list of differences and similarities. Depending on the availability of the drink, wine was either a widely-enjoyed drink or reserved for the rich and noble citizens. In all cultures, the wine was used for rituals and religious purposes, and had a great influence on religious practices around the world, as almost every culture had a “wine god” (Garcia-Romeu and Tart 126). Such gods were Cernunnos for Celtic tribes, Yi-Ti for the Chinese, Osiris for Egyptians, and Aegir for Norsemen. Cuisines differed due to geographical factors, but all foods served with wine usually had the purpose of reducing intoxication to prolong the consumption of the drink.
In the Medieval Period, due to the wine trade spreading around the world, wine consumption habits started to become more homogenous (Demossier 691). In Europe, this was due to the spread of Christianity, which not only had wine in its mythos but also took direct control over its production and distribution. The Church was a powerful entity, with plenty of money and resources. Many monasteries cultivated wine. Due to advancing technologies and practices, wine became more available to the common folk. And yet, it was the rich who set up the standards for high wine culture, as they were able to afford exquisite and exotic snacks to match a particular bouquet. Cheese became a popular addition to wine, particularly in France (Demossier, 687). During this period, more elaborate wine gradations started to appear throughout Europe. Although first similar attempts and simplistic gradation attempts were made even during ancient times, the monks of numerous Christian monasteries put great effort into the classification and gradation of wines according to their type, date, season, and even taste (Dougherty 276). This became the foundation for what would later become the AOC – a wine classification system used in France nowadays.
In the Middle East, the status of wine and its culture thrived despite the rise of Islam, which prohibited the consumption of wine in abundance as haram, or sin. Despite that, wine often found itself at the tables of commoners and nobles alike, as not even strict adherence to Islam was capable of completely robbing the region of its long traditions of wine consumption.
In China, wine culture and tradition remained largely unaffected by the passing of time. It was yet to be reached by the European expeditions and merchants, and in its region, China, was the standard of culture in every aspect, even in that regarding wine. Korean and Japanese traditions of drinking have a lot in common with the Chinese cultural norms of that period (Rod 105). In these countries, wine was used to mark joyous or sorrowful occasions. As many oriental cultures were based on respect and saving face, there was a set of rules for the guests to follow. Every guest had to keep their glass full and empty it during a toast, after which the glass was to be turned upside down on a place. Participating in a toast was obligatory, as not doing so was viewed as an insult. The ritual of touching one another’s glass differed, depending on the occasion. If the occasion was sorrowful, the act of clanking glasses together was avoided entirely. Wine in medieval China remained largely the domain of men, as women were often prohibited from drinking it (Kohn 24).
Popular Wine Culture
Popular wine culture in most countries is a blend of national traditions heavily influenced by the overall etiquette. Due to an increase in world trade and overall globalization of the economies, numerous traditions in regards to wine became universal. Such is the shape of wine bottles and wine glass, and some of the cuisines normally served with wine (Demossier 701). Such is the use of cheese and chocolate with wine, a trend borrowed from France. French traditions, which are viewed as the epitome of wine culture, are a blend of ancient Greek and Roman traditions, which evolved on their own throughout the Middle Ages. The tradition of eating cheese with wine, in particular, appeared after a massive epidemic of phylloxera, which cause many vineyards to die (Simpson 35). These wine yards became pastures for cows, thus making a connection between wine and cheese. The French pride themselves on the art of wine degustation – many professional wine critics can tell not only the region where the wine is from but also the season and even year. In many countries, wine became a special drink reserved for family celebrations, important guests, and romantic dinners, while softer drinks such as beers took the position of everyday and party drinks (Demossier 702). Some regions, however, retain their national identity to some degree. China, for example, adopted both ways of consuming wine. While using traditional European wine glasses is now a staple at banquets, and in restaurants, the traditional Chinese wine ceremony lives on. It involves much smaller, specialized cups, and making a toast before drinking (Dougherty 290). All guests are expected to drink at the same time and drink the entire cup in one go. Although this tradition has roots in the ancient history of China, it shows reminiscence to similar rituals performed around the world, showing that different cultures around the world develop their traditions in similar ways, independently one from another.
Conclusions
Upon analysis of the facts about the development of wine culture in different areas of the world, several conclusions could be made. Initially, wine cultures were diverse and highly customized according to the local customs and traditions. In all countries that became prominent producers of wine, wine culture was largely developed by the rich and the nobility, who were prime consumers of the drink. The exception was those countries that had wine in abundance, such as Greece. In Greece, the culture of wine developed holistically. Greek influence largely shaped European wine culture, and with increasing globalization, seeped into Asia. Nowadays, even China, Korea, and Japan see an increasing demand for western sorts of wine, and European traditions of wine consumption are being adopted.
In the Medieval ages, the process of homogenization of wine cultures began, as these cultures were largely shaped and intertwined with the most prominent religions in Europe and the Middle East. European wine culture flourished under the Church, which had impressive profits from selling exquisite wines to nobles and commoners alike. In the Middle East, however, the advances in wine culture were somewhat stifled by Islam, but wine orchards did not disappear, as the wine trade was very profitable.
Popular wine culture is a distant descendant of Greek wine culture, has undergone many changes and transformations along the way. Still, the trend shows continuous homogenization of wine cultures in various countries throughout the world, with their own cultures and cuisines leaving but an imprint on how wine is consumed and what food is served to supplement and enhance its tastes. Nevertheless, one thing remains certain – wine is still viewed as an exquisite, noble drink, reserved for special celebrations and occasions.
Works Cited
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