Introduction
A critical part of doctoral studies is the ability to scrutinize and evaluate academic literature. This paper demonstrates this ability by analyzing five empirical studies that are crucial to the understanding of international security (both in the local and international context). Similarly, by identifying the strengths and weaknesses in these studies, this paper demonstrates a study sketch of how to address these weaknesses.
Literature Review
Human rights in the new training curriculum of the Police Service of Northern Ireland
Summary
Engel & Burruss (2004) authored a research study to investigate if human right training formed part of the police-training curriculum for Northern Ireland. This research aim merged with the quest to investigate if Northern Ireland police reform adopted a holistic perspective to human right training and its principles integrated into North Ireland’s police training modules. The above research questions characterized the research purpose, which was to investigate how Northern Ireland adopted dimensions of democratic police reform. This research question informed the shift in police training paradigm from a divided society to a democratic policing model (Engel & Burruss, 2004).
The research methodology adopted by Engel & Burruss (2004) was observational research. The methodology strived to observe the police-training program for new police trainees during their first 20 weeks of training. Recorded observations traced to the second, 12th, and 17th weeks of training.
Moreover, the trainees provided their views regarding the incorporation of human rights principles in the police-training program through informal interviews. There were no identifiable methods of data analysis explained in the paper but in my view, the limited scope of observations and interviews weakened the validity of the research. However, the study established that there was a holistic adoption human rights principle in the police-training program (Engel & Burruss, 2004).
Meaning and Significance of the Findings
Engel & Burruss (2004) made a compelling case for the meaning and significance of their findings because they drew the link between human right approaches and police training as part of democratic reforms that swept throughout Europe in the mid nineties. They also highlighted the importance of human rights training as part of modern-day democratic gains by investigating if the police respected this virtue. The implications of their findings improve the understanding of modern-day governance structures and its advancement of human rights in a democratic society (Engel & Burruss, 2004).
Political culture, hegemony, and inequality before the law: law enforcement in Pakistan
Summary
Mohammad & Conway (2005) authored a research paper titled Political culture, hegemony, and inequality before the law: law enforcement in Pakistan to investigate the role and perception of the police in Pakistan’s criminal justice system. The purpose of the study was to report the patterns of behavior and attitudes that have existed in Pakistan’s criminal justice system for the past three decades. The research problem premises on the change of governments as an influencer for pattern and behavioral change in Pakistan’s criminal justice system (Mohammad & Conway, 2005). The findings of the study however showed that there has not been adequate change of behavioral patterns or attitudes within Pakistan’s criminal justice system (despite the change of governments over the past three decades).
The study also established that there is widespread cynicism among Pakistanis regarding the effectiveness of law enforcement (Mohammad & Conway, 2005). Therefore, Mohammad & Conway (2005) established that many crimes were unreported in Pakistan because of the cynicism directed at the police. In fact, the authors quoted one respondent saying, “stay away from police friendship as well as police enmity (Hallaj)” (Mohammad & Conway, 2005, p. 1). Overall, the research problem tried to investigate if the change of political leadership had influenced a change in behavioral patterns or attitudes over the past three decades.
The paper’s research design based its structures on a conceptual discussion and approach that stemmed on extensive interviews carried out on important members of Pakistan’s justice system (such as the judges, bureaucrats, criminal justice victims, political prisoners and even thugs) (Mohammad & Conway, 2005). Interviewing these members of the criminal justice system took ten months (a period that stretched between 1992 and 1993) (Mohammad & Conway, 2005). The interviews occurred in the North Western Frontier province where interviews for the elite and rank-and-file members (police, judges, and prosecutors) occurred in one shift and interviews for political victims, torture victims and other recipients of Pakistan’s criminal justice system occurred in another shift.
In-depth interviews and observations comprised the main data gathering tools, but the administration of a multi-faceted study approach occurred to handle ethical, ideological and hegemonic issues. The research also used the qualitative analysis technique to comprehend the nature of the sample population and the institutional behaviors characterizing Pakistan’s criminal justice system (Mohammad & Conway, 2005).
One author (Fida Mohammad) was also keen to analyze Pakistan’s police training program and its effect on the criminal justice system. Concerning the originality and validity of the research study, different aspects of the country’s criminal justice system took a theoretical description, with particular references to the hegemony witnessed in the country’s political system. The study did not cite any validity concerns, but in my view, the nature of the methodology (reliance on observations and interviews) posed several validity concerns (like interview bias). The paper did not address these concerns.
Meaning and Significance of the Findings
Mohammad & Conway (2005) made a compelling argument for the meaning and significance of their findings because they drew a very close relationship between their findings and practice. The distinction between theory and practice forms a critical part of this paper because this paper establishes that there is a significant divide between the two concepts. However, Mohammad & Conway (2005) bridge this gap by explaining how their findings reflect the underpinnings of Pakistan’s criminal justice system. The significance of the study elaborates how the political reality of the society manifests national hegemony to impose the dominant rule of the political class on the people.
To advance their arguments, Mohammad and Conway explain how police use torture and other coercive means to impose the rule of law on the poor while niceties characterize the treatment of the rich. This description shows how certain political realities promote inequality. Mohammad & Conway (2005) portray this political reality as unfair and repressive because they quote an excerpt from Brogden (1982) which states that “Police management decisions are only legitimate in so far as they uphold the rule of law and the maxims of equality of subjects before it” (p. 4).
Qualitative approach to the research into the parameters of human security in the community
Summary
From the understanding of the importance of human security as a critical factor in political and social systems, Djuric (2009) authored a research paper titled, Qualitative approach to the research into the parameters of human security in the community. The purpose of the study was to suggest a reliable qualitative framework for understanding human security in the community setting. This approach conceives as part of a larger community-based approach to understand human security.
The study’s methodology involved a synthesis of four empirical studies, which investigated the main indicators of community security in Serbia. The paper demonstrated how to apply qualitative methodological approaches to understand community security and the potential that exists from the same approach. The paper also demonstrated how to present, design, and analyze data within the methodology approach (Djuric, 2009).
The research findings showed that it was important to adopt a complementary approach to understand human security because different community dynamics posed a complex understanding of security perception (Djuric, 2009). In other words, the study proposed the adoption of qualitative and quantitative approaches to comprehend the perception of community members regarding their individual and collective security. The implications of the findings showed that through a combination of the qualitative and quantitative approaches to understanding human security, it was easier to establish the causes and nature of security factors in the community.
Through the same approach, it is easier to get a comparable and representative analysis of security issues in the community (and the adoption of any proposed model to improve the security situation of a given nation). The authors omitted an explanation of the paper’s validity, but a general analysis of the research limitations acknowledged that the four models studied in the paper only provided an initial insight into the framework for understanding human security in the community setting (a need to explore other models of human security surfaced in this regard).
Meaning and Significance of the Findings
Djuric (2009) makes a compelling case for the significance and understanding of his findings because he presents the factual nature of human security in the community setting. He presents the real-life multiple perceptions that human security manifests (by explaining the importance of understanding human security as a complex phenomenon that requires comprehension through the qualitative and quantitative approaches).
Indeed, Djuric (2009) presents human security as a sophisticated interaction of economic, political, and micro-social factors, which represent real-life dynamics of the human environment. The meaning and significance of Djuric (2009) findings therefore manifest an understanding of human security through a multifaceted approach, which mirrors in policy frameworks and concepts.
Relations between police and private security officers in South KoreaFourth Article
Summary
Nalla & Hwang (2006) authored a research paper to investigate the relationship between law enforcement officers and private security officers in South Korea (as a way to investigate the best way private and public securities merge to improve national security). The purpose of the study was therefore to investigate the nature of the relationship between private security and public security.
However, the researchers made more focus to investigate the attitude and perceptions of the working relationship between the centres of security. Members of these security agencies also sought views regarding how this relationship improves and what the future of this relationship contends.
Increased security firms in South Korea (just like any other developing country) informed the methodology of the paper. The authors interviewed 258 police officers (134 officers were from private security firms and others were national police officers) (Nalla & Hwang, 2006). The interviews were administered using Korean-translated questionnaires. To check for the validity of the findings obtained, the researchers translated the responses to English and their validity checked. The paper’s findings showed that the officers were generally satisfied with the relationship they shared with each other and they looked forward to a more fruitful cooperation in the future.
However, each group of officers believed that they could do more to improve their working relationship further. Even though the researchers made significant strides in understanding the level of commitment that street-level officers had towards public and private security cooperation, the authors emphasized the need to investigate the perception and attitudes that the administrative bodies of both security agencies have towards each other (Nalla & Hwang, 2006).
Meaning and Significance of the Findings
Nalla & Hwang (2006) made a compelling case for the understanding and significance of their findings because both authors explain the difference of the security structures between developed and developing nations and show how their findings are important to the understanding of other security relationships in third world countries. Regarding the significance of the study’s findings, it is crucial to highlight the fact that both authors demonstrated the significance of their findings to understand the private and public security cooperation in South Korea.
For example, the authors noted that since there was more optimism among private security officers regarding their relationship with the national police, there was an opportunity to encourage national security officers to improve their willingness to forge a better working relationship with private security officers (Nalla & Hwang, 2006). This way, the study’s findings were important to understand how private-public security collaboration improves.
The ability to generalize the study’s findings across the security structures in most developing countries emphasized the validity of the findings because the South Korean study initiated further investigations into the security aspects that are inherent in other developing nations.
The thinking eye: Pros and cons of second generation CCTV surveillance systems
Summary
Surette (2005) explores the social implications for adopting second generation security cameras in public places as a way to improve national security (this statement defines the purpose of the study). The research problem investigates if it is correct to use any type of technology to improve security. The researchers used CCTV surveillance to explain modern-day technology, which improves security.
The research methodology was simplistic because it only evaluated the research literature from the pros and cons of CCTV cameras (without analyzing other ethical or security issues posed by other technological gadgets). The paper’s findings explained the difference between first and second-generation CCTV cameras by exposing the main difference between the two cameras and their capability to analyze images independently. In other words, the researchers showed that first generation cameras could not operate without human input, while second generation cameras could (Surette, 2005).
Therefore, the perception of second-generation camera was its independence from human-errors because its design addresses the weaknesses of the first generation cameras. Surette (2005) also revealed that the increased efficiency of the second generation cameras brought new ethical and social concerns regarding privacy because the second generation camera was more intrusive (from the increased expansion of surveillance). The researcher acknowledged that one limitation of his finding was the paper’s failure to assess CCTV surveillance on more rigorous social dynamics (like informal guardianship). The implication of the study centres on developing effective strategies for the deployment of security measures in the community.
Here, the paper explained that the easy availability and low costs of technology is not the only consideration for adopting new technology in improving security. The main threat to the validity of the study’s findings was the changing nature of technology. In other words, the findings of the paper base their structures on existing technology, which may change in the future (therefore, posing new dynamics to the research topic).
Meaning and Significance of the Findings
Surette (2005) makes a compelling case for the meaning and significance of his findings because he highlights the serious ethical and social issues that new technology poses. For example, privacy debates have characterized most political and social issues because it infringes on peoples’ rights. Therefore, there has been a significant divide between proponents of improved security and personal rights (where there has been a tilt of balance between national security issues and personal rights issues).
Surette (2005) demonstrates that his findings can be able to improve the understanding of these issues by exploring different dynamics regarding these political and social issues. The author therefore draws the line between where the roles of the police begin and where the role of new technology ends. His approach is therefore of high significance in trying to understand the relationship between human and technology in security enforcement.
Discussion
After analyzing the five papers discussed above, there is a concrete effort among all the researchers to address different aspects of national security from varied perspectives. For example, Surette (2005) explores the contribution of technology in improving national security, while Nalla & Hwang (2006) explore the relationship between private security and public security in improving law and order in South Korea. The contributions of these two authors are not different from the contribution made by Djuric (2009) (in the third analysis), Mohammad & Conway (2005) (in the second analysis) or Engel and Burruss (2004) contribution (in the first analysis). Through the contribution of these researchers, investigations of crucial elements of national security implementation like human security, models for understanding human security in the community setting and the perception of the police in the community setting occur.
The contributions of these five studies explore known issues regarding national security and more importantly, the crucial elements of national security implementation in the community setting. Indeed, the papers show that it is crucial to understand national security issues from a holistic approach by analyzing the community and private sector approach to national security. These security issues are crucial in comprehending the main topic of my dissertation project (which is to understand the Impact of International Police Advisors’ Training on the Reformation of Afghan).
Through the presentation of private and public sector security perception and the analysis of different models in the understanding of national security, the five studies discussed above therefore highlight the holistic approach to understanding national security. The studies also draw the link between the effectiveness of security training and the eventual outcome of national security implementation. The studies therefore present the idea that poor security training (in human rights approaches, or otherwise) lead to poor outcomes in national security implementation.
Moreover, these studies also show that such outcomes present a negative perception of security agents within the community and in this regard, they lose the public goodwill to enforce law and order. Mohammad & Conway (2005) highlight the situation in Pakistan where there is very little public confidence in the security agents and a low national goodwill about police actions. Indeed, Mohammad & Conway (2005) explain that public goodwill is lost when security agents do not demonstrate fairness and equity in the implementation of national laws. Their assertion traces its support from the biased implementation of national laws by the Pakistani police (on socioeconomic lines). The authors explain that the Pakistani police are more lenient on the rich and are ruthless on the poor (Mohammad & Conway, 2005). Through this double-faced application of the law, there is a strong perception among the public that the security agencies are serving the interests of a small elite minority as opposed to the interest of the majority.
Comprehensively, most of the articles described above emphasize the importance of ensuring fairness and equality in implementing national security laws because they recognize the need for positive public perception in implementing national security laws.
Albeit the five studies discussed above have highlighted important aspects of national security and national policy implementation, the globalized nature of security issues define an important omission in their findings. In detail, Mandel (1999) explains that there are four types of security platforms national, international, transnational, and regional. In today’s global world, these four platforms of security cross one another. Engel and Burruss (2004) analyses explore the respect of human rights as one phenomenon, which shows the interaction among the four security platforms (Engel & Burruss, 2004).
Indeed, until the onset of globalization, there was little respect for international security issues (such as human rights) across most third world countries. Concisely, several human rights violations occurred in most third world countries but now, the trend is slowly changing as law enforcement agencies train to respect these rights (Mandel, 1999). This analogy presents one way that international security factors are slowly creeping into domestic security structures. Therefore, from this understanding, there is a common perception that it is quickly becoming difficult to disassociate transnational, international, national or even regional security.
Apart from the mention of human rights issues, the five papers discussed above do not address this new development. In other words, the structures that would demonstrate how international, transnational and regional security forces merge to form one standard security platform are unexplored.
Recommendations
Study Sketch
Based on the lack of understanding regarding how international, national, transnational, and regional security issues merge, this section of the paper proposes a qualitative study to address the failure of the five studies analyzed above). This sketched study contributes to a growing body of theory that seeks to understand how international security forces affect the national policy development structures of different countries. Similar to the nature of the knowledge gap, the purpose of the research will be to understand how national, transnational, international, and regional security merges to improve national security.
Research Design
As mentioned above, the intended study will be a qualitative study. On one hand, this qualitative study will be designed to investigate how different components of the four security platforms merge to improve overall national security. On the other hand, the qualitative study will be designed to identify possible areas of disconnect that the four security platforms have (and how they can be eliminated to improve national security or the general effectiveness of local security agencies).
Since Marshall and Rossman (2010) posit that qualitative research designs effectively accommodate case study research; the intended research is also going to encompass case study information to investigate how other countries have merged the four security platforms to improve the overall effectiveness of their homeland security. The use of the qualitative research design therefore accommodates the ambiguous scope of the research topic and its broad nature.
Indeed, Marshall and Rossman (2010) contend that qualitative research designs are conveniently used when the scope and nature of the research topic is unclear. However, the use of the qualitative research design bases its approval on the fact that this research design forms the framework for the development of future research studies, which further investigate the research topic. The qualitative research design therefore stands as a precursor for future research, which may depend on quantitative research design (to investigate (in detail) the findings of the qualitative research) (Marshall and Rossman, 2010).
Data
The use of secondary data and primary data inform the findings of the sketched study. The broad nature of the research topic informs the adoption of the two data collection methods because the topic covers a multicultural and international law understanding. Peer-reviewed articles comprise the secondary information but questionnaires (sent to international security experts) will provide primary data. To have a fair representation of the international experts’ view, a sampling of 20 respondents suits the study. This number eases the technicalities of gathering information from a large sample of respondents. Sampling 20 respondents will therefore be manageable using minimal resources. Online questionnaires comprise the main data collection tool (for primary data) because mailed questionnaires capture the views of each participant to sample their understanding of different dynamics of the research topic. The dual approach for data collection (secondary and primary) will represent a holistic approach to data collection. Furthermore, these data collection strategies will capture the varied dynamics of transnational, national, international, and regional security issues.
Data Analysis
For purposes of data analysis, two data analysis tools will be used (coding and member-check technique). Klenke (2008) confirms that these tools have a high reliability in evaluating primary and secondary research data. Since the secondary research is expansive, the coding technique (as an interpretive tool) structures the gathered data. This data analysis method therefore provides a structured impression of the overall outcomes because it produces a structured impression of the gathered data (Jones, 2008).
The coding technique is a simplistic data analysis tool that assigns specific codes to organized data. The technique organizes data according to related subjects. Therefore, each related subject denotes a specific code that allows for the easy analysis of such information.
The member-check technique plays a complementary role to the coding technique by evaluating the credibility, transferability, and accuracy of the research data gathered. The member check technique works by establishing the disparities between the source of information and the eventual quality of reporting. For example, the member check technique ensures that there is no significant difference between the quality of reporting and the actual source of information. This technique analyzes both the primary and secondary sources of information.
When analyzing the primary information sources, the member-check technique ensures that the outcomes of the study express the perspectives, feelings, and context of the respondents. The same mechanism will represent information from published authors.
Threats to Validity
The main threat to the validity of the finding is the applicability of the study’s findings across different social, economic, and political environments. This paper already acknowledges that the nature of the research topic is broad and therefore, the findings of this paper can possibly pose a problem for its applicability in different settings.
Quality of Findings
Since the premise of the intended research will be the qualitative research design, there may be significant questions asked regarding the quality of the findings. However, the adoption of the dual data collection and data analysis strategies ensure the quality of the findings obtained is high. For example, the use of secondary and primary data guarantee that the information obtained from both sources of data crosschecks against each other.
Therefore, a warrant of further research is possible when there are great discrepancies between the findings and their sources. Therefore, the responses obtained from the respondents need not be very different from the insights gathered from the secondary research analysis. The use of the member check technique and the coding technique also works in the same manner.
Conclusion
The data collected in the research question will be crucial in answering the research question because it will show the potential opportunities for merging transnational, national, international, and regional security issues to form one strong and formidable force in the protection of homeland security.
The data obtained will also show the possible obstacles that obscure the achievement of this purpose. Through this revelation, it will be easier to point out the possible areas of conflict in creating a ‘global’ security model that seeks to uphold national security and eliminate the hurdles.
References
Brogden, M. (1982). The Police: Autonomy and Consent. London: Academic Press Inc.
Djuric, S. (2009). Qualitative approach to the research into the parameters of human security in the community. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 32(3), 541 – 559.
Engel, S. & Burruss, G. (2004). Human rights in the new training curriculum of the Police Service of Northern Ireland. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 27(4), 498 – 511.
Jones, P. (2008). Day Treatment Center: An Effective Educational Setting? New York: ProQuest.
Klenke, K. (2008). Qualitative Research In The Study Of Leadership. New York: Emerald Group Publishing.
Mandel, R. (1999). Deadly Transfers and the Global Playground: Transnational Security Threats in a Disorderly World. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Marshall, C. & Rossman, G. (2010). Designing Qualitative Research. New York: SAGE.
Mohammad, F. & Conway, P. (2005). Political culture, hegemony, and inequality before the law: law enforcement in Pakistan. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 28(4) 631 – 641.
Nalla, M. & Hwang, E. (2006). Relations between police and private security officers in South Korea. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 29(3), 482 – 497.
Surette, R. (2005). The thinking eye: Pros and cons of second generation CCTV surveillance systems. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 28(1), 152 – 173.