Introduction
Ideally, a good research project should clearly identify the question to be answered, and set the ways and means through which the researcher will meet the research objectives. Specifically, a good research project answers the ‘who, what, where, when, why and how’ questions. To obtain all the needful answers, the research question should be right and the research sample appropriate. For validity purposes, the research must draw from existing theory, or support a phenomenon that has already been identified by previous researchers. For purposes of this essay, three articles by Ellis and Levy (2008), Van Iddekinge, Campbell and Putka (2011), and Wacker (1998) have been identified. The articles address different issues in research with Ellis and Levy’s article underlining the need for researchers to develop a ‘research-worthy problem statement’. Campbell and Putka’s article on the other hand discuss the ‘validity of an interest-based selection’ during sampling, while Wacker’s article discusses different ‘theory building research methods.
Although the three articles discuss different research considerations, they collectively provide some helpful advice to novice or experienced researchers willing to come up with valuable research findings.
The Article
Ellis and Levy (2008) authored an article titled “framework of problem-based research: a guide for novice researchers on the development of research-worthy problems”. In the article, the researchers argue that any viable research must have a well-expressed problem statement that must be research-worthy. The problem statement for the article authored by Ellis and Levy (2008) is that most researchers do not effectively establish and identify the research-worthiness of a research issue. Accordingly, a well-defined problem statement according to the authors answers the “why?” in any research. In the scholarly circles, the authors argue that researchers are motivated to study an issue, and publish the findings since it is part of the requirement to earn a degree, promotion at work or tenure. With such motivators, Ellis and Levy (2008) argue that it is little wonder that most research findings have little value or interest in the real world. The first question that Ellis and Levy (2008) propose researchers should answer before engaging in a study is “Why conduct the research?” (p. 18).
According to Ellis and Levy (2008), researchers cannot fully provide meaningful research findings without identifying the problem they want to address first. Ellis and Levy goes ahead to state that based on the research problem, researchers set goals, questions or hypotheses to be used in the research. Based on such, the researcher is then able to determine the methodology, which in turn enables him to produce results. Based on the results/findings, the researcher is able to reach a conclusion, which should ideally answer the research question, confirm or disapprove identified hypotheses and help the researcher in attaining goals and objectives set out when commencing the research.
Ellis and Levy have based their article on a review of existing literature. Consequently, they have drawn knowledge concerning the issue they have addressed from multiple sources, which include internet sources, peer-reviewed journal articles and books. Notably however, the writers have not offered any validity criteria, which they used to judge their literature sources. As Henderikus (2007) observes, the content validity of literature sources depends on their relevance, clarity, simplicity and ambiguity to the subject being investigated by the researchers. Although it is obvious that the articles used by Ellis and Levy must have been relevant to their discussion, readers cannot verify the clarity, simplicity of lack of ambiguity in the same articles. However, Ellis and Levy’s omission is usual as Henderikus (2007) observes that most researchers do not regard the content validity of the literature they review as important. By such disregard however, it is worth noting that Ellis and Levy have denied readers knowledge concerning the validity of instruments used in the reviewed literature.
The article by Ellis and Levy provides researchers with an outline that would enable them to locate research-worthy problems. In addition, the article provides a guide that researchers can use in order to develop effective problem statements. Further, the authors have designed a guide that researchers can use in developing effective problem statements. In addition to their efforts in recommending viable ways of identifying research-worthy problem statements, Ellis and Levy (2008) conclude by observing that their recommended methods do not offer absolute solutions to the challenges researchers experience in the quest to design research-worthy problem statements. As such, they advise researchers to consult widely in order to identify a problem statement that not only enables them to attain meaningful research findings, but also findings that would be of interest to practical disciplines.
Van Iddekinge et al. (2011) have authored an article titled “Reconsidering vocational interests for personnel selection: The validity of an interest-based selection test in relation to job knowledge, job performance, and continuance intentions”. The authors start by admitting that vocational interests have been investigated extensively in occupational psychology. However, the authors observe that the same vocational interests have only received partial attention from researchers and scholars investigating personnel selection. As such, the authors identified the lack of attention in vocational interests by researchers as their research problem.
In the article, Van Iddekinge et al. (2011) use four hypotheses, and one research question. The authors base three of the four hypotheses on the belief that realistic, social and artistic interests held by employees affect their knowledge, performance, and continuance intentions in a specific job. The authors base the fourth hypothesis on the belief that vocational interests affect interpersonal knowledge on the job, performance and continuance intentions. The research question on the other hand seeks to find out if investigative interests have positive relations towards technical and interpersonal job knowledge. The research question also seeks to find out if the investigative interests relate to technical proficiency in employees.
The article by Van Iddekinge et al. (2011) was written in order to show that researchers could develop and validate measures for use in the selection of new employees based on their vocational interests. The article also intends to show that vocational interests are compatible to the short- and long-term organisational goals. To achieve their objective, Van Iddekinge et al. (2011) analysed data obtained from 418 soldiers from the US army. The authors used three types of predictor measures namely, vocational interests, personality, and cognitive aptitude. The criterion measures were job knowledge, interpersonal job knowledge, job performance, and continuance intentions.
The findings by Van Iddekinge et al. (2011) indicate that there is significant variance in vocational interests held by employees, and the realistic interests supported by the work environment. The authors admit that not all types of jobs meet the interest of the employees, and not employees pursue careers that meet their career interests. The findings by the authors has implications for practise and theory since it demonstrates that interest measures can be used to predict knowledge, intentions and behaviours related to a specific job.
The threats to validity in the Van Iddekinge et al. (2011) study include the fact that authors conducted their research in a military setting. As such, the extent to which the survey findings can be applied to other groups within the civilian population is challengeable. This is especially the case since the military population cannot be representative of the civilian population. In addition, the authors carried out their study on identified facets of vocational interests. Considering the multifaceted nature of vocational interests, the validity of the research can be contested in various other interests that employers may consider during employee selection and recruitment.
Although the study by Van Iddekinge et al. (2011) is comprehensive, the suggestions made for future research by the authors is evidence that knowledge is expansive, and that no research is in itself an answer to all the questions that may exist in a particular discipline.
The article “A definition of theory: research guidelines for different theory-building research methods in operations management” was written by Wacker (1998). In the article, the researcher seeks to find out the implications that theory has on research that relies heavily on “theory-building” practices. Noting that there are discrepancies on the definition of ‘theory’ by different scholars, the authors commence the article by developing a definition for use in the article’s context. By borrowing from relevant literature, the author refines the definition of the term ‘theory’ by identifying conditions that constitute a theory. Next, the author constructed the ‘good theory’ concept based on traditional virtues borrowed from literature. The authors further suggested procedures for use in theory building research, which would ideally fit the definition of the word ‘theory’.
The research by Wacker (1998) went ahead and demonstrated that the sub-categories involved in theory building research fit into the six identified categories. Finally, the article presents evidence that six pre-dominant theory-building types in operations management are unequally distributed. Consequently, Wacker (1998) concludes by observing that the research carried out on theory and causality integrations hinders management theory from being elevated to an abstraction level.
Overall, the article by Wacker (1998) offers some invaluable advice to scholars and researchers alike on how they can go about building good theories. However, it is worth noting that theory building is a tenuous undertaking, which does not follow specific laid down rules. As such, Wacker’s article can at best serve as a guideline to people who may want to develop their own theories.
Literature Review
Ellis and Levy’s assertion that a clear problem statement is essential in any research is widely supported in literature. Tracy (2007) is among authors who believe that a ‘good’ research problem statement forms the basis of good research. To such authors, the problem statement not only enables the researcher answer the ‘why?’ question, it also enables him of her contextualise the extent of the research process and hence prepare well for the undertaking. As such, it is widely agreed in literature that the well-argued, supported and articulated research problem is the basis for meaningful research findings.
Van Iddekinge et al. (2011) delved into a subject that has attracted interest among scholarly circles. Simola (2011) for example argue that although job seekers’ interest may motivate them to seek employment is specific sub-field; other variables such as opportunities for good remuneration, training and development may motivate them to take up a job albeit in the short-term. A different opinion by Dreu, Carsten and Aukje (2009) suggest that the belief by theorists that human beings are either social or self-interested in nature is not necessarily true. The authors argue that although interest in a job may contribute to job performance and continuance intentions, other variable such as the work environment, and the employee’s ability to adjust to a career he was not interested in before need to be considered too. Specifically, interventions that contribute towards job enrichment and employee satisfaction have significant relevance to this subject if a broader model of work behaviour and motivations is to be acquired (Dreu et al., 2009).
Wacker (1998) is not alone in discussing theoretical foundations and researchers. Gelso (2006); Harlow (2009); Henderikus (2007); and Henderikus (2010) are among other writers who have addressed the subject in literature. Although none of the identified has gone to lengths in identifying how researchers can build theories, they have discussed the implication that theory has on research (Henderikus, 2010); applying theory in research (Gelso, 2006; Harlow, 2009), and the relationship between theory and research (Henderikus, 2010). Notably, most writers agree that theory plays a significant role in research. As Wacker (1998) observes, theory “provides a framework for analysis; it provides an efficient method for field development; and it provides clear explanations for the pragmatic world” (p. 362).
Although the necessity of theory cannot be ignored in research, it is also worth noting that its inclusion presents several problems to researchers. The mere fact that theories are made up of what is often referred as ‘unobservable generalizations’ (Henderikus, 2007) is just one of such problems, which makes attaining conclusive evidence a hard thing to do. The requirement for empirical adequacy is another problem in theory, since the same theory can differ across disciplines (Henderikus, 2010).
Based on the three articles by Ellis and Levy (2008), Van Iddekinge et al. (2011), and Wacker (1998), it is clear that the aims and objectives of a research affect the approach that researchers adopt while conducting a survey. While the studies by Van Iddekinge et al. (2011) and Wacker (1998) address specific business-related research issues, Ellis and Levy’s article is broader addressing the need for well-defined research problems in all types of research.
The gap identified in the Van Iddekinge et al. study
This section is intended to address the gap identified in the Van Iddekinge et al. (2011) study, where the authors expressed the need for further study in order to verify if their results would be applicable across the other vocations. As such, this section seeks to answer the question: do vocational interests affect the job performance among civilian populations?
To answer the above stated question, a study will be conducted between two types of service providers. Specifically, respondents will be drawn from the nursing and teaching careers. In the study, the researcher will seek to find out if the respondents had interest in their respective line of careers, and how the interests in the same has affected their willingness to stay in the same fields regardless of the challenges they face.
The proposed study
Aim
The aim of the proposed study will be to note any differences in the job performance of service workers (nurses and teachers) who were interested in their present careers prior to joining the same. It is expected that people who had prior interest will prove more diligent in their work, and would therefore exhibit better performance and/or would last longer in the same jobs.
Research methodology
The researcher intends to use a combination of quantitative and qualitative survey methods, which Jogulu and Pansiri (2011) refer to as mixed methods. The qualitative survey will be conducted using a review of existing literature; while the quantitative survey will be conducted using a structured questionnaire targeting identified respondents. Notably however, the respondents’ prior interest in their present careers will use self-report measures, which can pose a threat to the validity of the same results. Notable is the fact that some respondents may lie, while others may give answers that they deem desirable to the research. To ensure that the research findings are valid, the researcher will carry out a concurrent validity exercise, where the research findings will be compared to other findings reported in literature. To ensure quality in the research findings, the researcher will carefully design the questionnaire and probes in a manner that will ensure that the questions are acceptable to the respondents, and that the language is comprehensible. Additionally, the researcher will apply relevant frameworks, themes, and patterns during the analysis phase and state all the findings, issues and recommendations that will arise during the survey. To encourage respondents to give truthful answers, confidentiality will be reinforces, and leading questions avoided.
Justification for the use of mixed methods of survey
According to Jogulu and Pansari (2011), “mixed methods advocate the use of both inductive and deductive research logic” in order to strengthen the research findings (p. 688). In addition, by using the combined approach enables researchers to amalgamate thematic and statistical approach, thus giving more validity to the research finding. As Maramaldi, Berkman and Barush (2005) observe, attaining construct validity requires the researcher to link latent and unobservable constructs to “ a series of interlocking concepts thought to be represented by observable events, behaviors, or characteristics” (p. 29).
Sample
The proposed study seeks to engage at least 1000 respondents (500 nurses, and 500 teachers). The respondents will be sampled from both genders, and most is below 40 years. The respondents will also be requested to fill in their family status. For example, their marital status and the number of children they have. As one would expect, young unmarried workers are more likely to pursue their career interests in a more spirited manner, than older married workers would.
The respondents will be required to complete a self-report questionnaire regarding their prior interests before joining their current careers. They will also be required to answer questions regarding their performance in the same job. Some of the pointers the researcher will use in order to gauge workers’ job performance and level of interest include the number of sick-offs or unpaid leaves that one takes.
According to Winwood, Winefield and Lushington (2006) nursing is a demanding career, which requires mental, emotional, and physical dedication. As such, only those who have a keen interest to serve their clients are able to withstand the responsibilities, the fatigue, and the emotional drain that comes with the profession. Teaching on the other hand is a career that requires a lot of patience (especially when working with young children), and is often not as rewarding as other ‘lucrative’ careers. It takes more than a call for duty for a teacher to meet his career duties; he or she must have a keen interest to impart knowledge on students. Yet, one cannot ignore the fact that some nurses and teachers may not have an interest in their jobs at all. To such, the possibility of earning a living through the two careers may be their single most motivation.
According to Croasdell, McLeod and Simkin (2010), peoples’ interest in a specific career affect their willingness to work therein, their performance, and job satisfaction levels. Specifically, the authors argue that although job capabilities matter, the decision to pursue a specific career are made from the “interest levels rather than the ability levels” (p. 160). Indeed, the subject that a person chose to major in as a student is among pointers that can indicate the presence or lack of interest in a specific career. Other influences include likes and preferences towards a particular job; family influence; previous experience in a specific job; information access about a job; and the prevailing job market situation (Croasdell et al., 2011).
Overall, the proposed sample is purposeful and intended to help the researcher attain findings that fit well in to the criteria established for the research. To uphold ethics during the research, the researcher will only use a voluntary sample, and will in no way coerce or manipulate the respondents. In addition, the researcher will inform potential respondents of all research procedures, any potential risks, and the time commitments before commencing the study. By availing such information to the potential respondents, the researcher ensures that the potential respondents will only consent to the study from an informed position. The researcher will also respect any requests that respondents make concerning treating their responses with anonymity or confidentiality.
Proposed data analysis methods
Considering that both quantitative and qualitative methodologies have been suggested for use in the study, the analysis methods need to handle both types of data. The researcher will need to use inferential and descriptive analysis for quantitative data, and other forms of preliminary analysis to test the standard deviations, percentages, means and/averages in the descriptive statistics acquired through the structured self-report questionnaires. The researcher will also use ANOVA to analyze the relationship between self-reported prior interests in a career type, and job performance, motivation and commitment. By using the identified analysis tool, the researcher is likely to identify consistencies and/or meanings in the responses attained from the respondent group. As is the norm in most results, the researcher has to sift through all the answers provided by the respondents in order to identify meaningful data and draw meaningful conclusions.
The proposed research will adopt a positivistic approach, and will refrain from affecting or interfering with data obtained from the research. Generally, researchers can either choose to adopt positivistic, realistic, or interpretive approaches to research. The interpretive approach is often used by researchers who disagree with law-like generalizations often observed in scientific research, while the realist approach stresses the notion that there is more reality than what is known to humankind.
Conclusion
It is worth noting that a person’s interests cannot be fully met in any one specific career. As such, there is a probability that people always have to pursue other undertakings that are of little interest to them. For example, a person who takes up teaching as a career based on the mere interest of interacting with students and passing on knowledge to them, has to put up less-interactive activities such as marking tests. Although such a person may gravitate towards social activities with the students, his teaching responsibilities are incomplete without the inclusion of other aspects of his work. One cannot however deny the possibility that one’s interests may motivate him to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills needed to perform specific career-related tasks effectively. It is for such reasons that this essay proposes the above research.
References
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